LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

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INTRODUCTION  TO  BIBLE  STUDY 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT 


BY 


F.  V.  N.  PAINTER,  D.D.,  LITT.D. 

'/ 
PROFESSOR    IN    ROANOKE   COLLEGE 

AUTHOR   OF   "A    HISTORY   OF   EDUCATION,"    "HISTORY    OF 

ENGLISH  LITERATURE,"  "  INTRODUCTION  TO  AMERICAN 

LITERATURE,"    "  GREAT   PEDAGOGICAL   ESSAYS," 

"HISTORY    OF   CHRISTIAN    WORSHIP,"    ETC. 


SIBLEY  .&    COMPANY 

BOSTON  CHICAGO 


COPYRIGHT,  1911, 
BY  SIBLEY  &  COMPANY. 


J.  S.  Gushing  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 
Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


PREFACE 

As  every  one  knows,  the  number  of  books  on  the  Bible 
is  very  great.  No  other  volume,  not  even  Shakespeare, 
has  called  forth  so  large  a  body  of  literature.  But  of  all 
that  has  been  written  there  are  very  few  books  that  have 
been  prepared  with  pedagogical  insight  to  meet  the  wants 
of  young  students.  It  is  in  view  of  this  need  that  the 
present  work  —  not  fruitlessly,  the  author  hopes  —  has 
been  prepared. 

The  purpose  of  this  book  is  to  set  forth  the  literary, 
historical,  and  ethical  value  of  the  Bible.  It  aims  to  pre- 
sent the  principal  facts  that  every  intelligent  person  ought 
to  know.  It  directs  the  students'  attention  chiefly  to  the 
Bible  itself;  and  as  a  literary,  historical,  and  ethical  study, 
the  Scriptures  will  be  found,  in  the  case  of  many  readers, 
to  be  a  book  of  unsuspected  interest  and  value. 

There  is,  at  the  present  time,  a  wide  and  somewhat  in- 
sistent demand  for  Bible  study  in  our  schools.  It  has 
been  shown  by  actual  test  that  a  large  majority  of  the 
students  in  our  colleges  are  lamentably  ignorant  of  the 
incidents  and  characters  of  sacred  history.  Yet  the  facts 
and  truths  of  the  Bible  are  wrought  into  the  very  texture 
of  modern  civilization,  and  ought,  therefore,  as  a  matter  of 
culture,  to  be  carefully  studied. 

The  restricted  purpose  of  the  present  volume  as  a  text- 
book naturally  determines  its  method.  After  an  intro- 
ductory chapter  showing  the  relation  of  the  Bible  to 
modern  life,  the  historic  conditions,  in  which  the  Old 

iii 

'225288 


iv  PREFACE 

Testament  originated,  will  be  considered.  The'  discoveries 
of  recent  years  have  greatly  enriched  this  field  of  inquiry. 
The  several  books  will  then  be  classified  and  studied  in 
some  detail.  Their  character  and  purpose,  with  an  analy- 
sis of  their  contents,  will  be  given,  after  which  the  student 
will  be  in  a  position  to  read  intelligently  the  passages 
indicated  for  research  work. 

The  author  has  tried  to  make  a  subject  that  is  usually 
regarded  irksome  interesting  and  instructive.  From  the 
standpoint  of  modern  scholarship,  the  Bible  has  acquired 
a  new  and  surpassing  interest.  Instead  of  being,  as  some 
are  led  to  believe,  an  obsolete  book,  it  is  seen  to  possess 
a  meaning  and  message  for  the  modern  world.  Its  funda- 
mental ethical  and  religious  truths  are  suited  to  every  age. 

It  will  be  observed  that  a  considerable  number  of  foot- 
notes have  been  introduced.  In  nearly  all  cases,  these 
notes  are  from  the  pens  of  eminent  biblical  scholars,  and 
serve  either  to  reenforce  the  statements  of  the  text  or  to 
open  up  new  aspects  of  the  subject.  It  is  hoped  that  they 
will  prove,  not  an  encumbrance  but  a  valuable  addition. 

The  research  work,  which  approaches  the  subject  from 
a  different  standpoint  in  each  chapter,  will  be  found  to 
have  the  force  of  a  cumulative  method.  It  may  be  safely 
claimed  that  a  reasonably  faithful  use  of  the  book  will  give 
both  a  comprehensive  and  a  particular  acquaintance  with 
the  Scriptures.  Should  the  book  at  the  same  time  con- 
tribute something  to  the  revival  of  a  vigorous  moral  sense 
in  our  country,  it  would  have  a  still  higher  excellence. 

F.  V.  N.  P. 
ROANOKE  COLLEGE, 
Feb.  15,  1911. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER   I 

PAGE 

RELATION  OF  THE  BIBLE  TO  MODERN  LIFE  i 

CHAPTER   II 
BACKGROUND  OF  HEBREW  HISTORY 24 

CHAPTER  III 
THE  PEOPLE  OF  ISRAEL <;i 

CHAPTER  IV 
THE  OLD  TESTAMENT  AS  LITERATURE 73 

CHAPTER   V 
SOME  STUDIES  IN  THE  PENTATEUCH 92 

CHAPTER  VI 
FROM  THE  CONQUEST  TO  SOLOMON   .        .        .        .  .     109 

CHAPTER   VII 
FROM  SOLOMON  TO  THE  RESTORATION 123 

CHAPTER   VIII 
STUDIES  IN  THE  POETICAL  BOOKS  OF  JOB  AND  PSALMS  .        .     135 

CHAPTER   IX 
PROVERBS,  ECCLESIASTES,  AND  SONG  OF  SOLOMON  .        .        .     153 

V 


vi  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER   X 

PAGE 

STUDIES  IN  THE  MAJOR  PROPHETS  —  ISAIAH  AND  JEREMIAH    .     170 

CHAPTER  XI 
STUDIES  IN  EZEKIEL  AND  DANIEL     .        .        .        .        ."        .193 

CHAPTER   XII 
STUDIES  IN  THE  EARLIER  MINOR  PROPHETS     .  .        .    214 

CHAPTER   XIII 
STUDIES  IN  JONAH,  MICAH,  NAHUM,  AND  HABAKKUK      .        .231 

CHAPTER  XIV 
STUDIES  IN  ZEPHANIAH,  HAGGAI,  ZECHARIAH,  AND  MALACHI  .     246 


INTRODUCTION  TO  BIBLE    STUDY 

CHAPTER  I 

RELATION    OF    THE    BIBLE    TO    MODERN    LIFE 

Modern  Civilization.  —  Our  modern  civilization  is  drawn 
chiefly  from  three  great  historic  sources.  The  refine- 
ment of  our  literary  and  artistic  taste  is  due  chiefly  to 
the  ancient  Greeks.  They  have  taught  us  the  beauty  of 
form.  Our  legal  system  has  descended  to  us,  in  large 
measure,  from  ancjent  Rome.  The  city  of  the  Tiber 
has  bequeathed  us  law.  Our  religion  has  come  from  the 
ancient  Hebrews.  They  have  taught  us  the  great  truths 
of  God  and  personal  righteousness. 

It  may  be  justly  claimed  that  the  Hebrew  or  religious 
element  in  modern  life  is  the  most  valuable  contribution 
of  the  ancient  world.  An  enlightened  conscience  counts 
for  more  than  does  a  cultivated  taste  or  legal  forms. 
It  is  the  religious  element  that  distinguishes  Christian 
from  pagan  civilization  —  that  exalts  individual  life,  and 
begets  the  highest  national  welfare.  The  sacred  Scrip- 
tures of  the  Old  and  the  New  Testament  are  the  sources 
of  this  important  element  in  modern  life. 

Culture  Value.  —  The  chief  elements  of  culture,  are 
breadth  of  knowledge  and  delicacy  of  feeling.  With  this 
truth  in  mind,  it  will  be  readily  seen  that  the  Bible  is 
a  potent  means  of  culture.  On  many  subjects  it  is  a 


2  ' AN-  INTRODUCTION  TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

storehouse  of  information.  It  is  our  principal  source  book 
for  the  history  of  the  ancient  Hebrews.  It  contains  the 
biographies  of  great  personages  —  Moses,  Jesus,  Paul  — 
who  have  left  a  permanent  impress  upon  the  history  of 
mankind.  It  is  filled  with  the  noblest  moral  and  reli- 
gious sentiment ;  and  our  race  has  only  to  live  up  to 
the  great  principle  of  loving  God  with  all  the  heart,  and 
our  neighbors  as  ourselves,  in  order  to  realize  the  king- 
dom of  heaven  on  earth. 

Carlyle's  Testimony. — The  great  Scotchman,  Thomas 
Carlyle,  had  a  keen  insight  into  the  edueational  value  of 
the  Bible.  He  regarded  books,  particularly  the  sacred 
Scriptures,  as  the  great  educators  of  to-day.  "  In  the 
poorest  cottage,"  he  says,  "are  books;  is  one  Book, 
wherein  for  several  thousands  of  years  the  spirit  of  man 
has  found  light,  and  nourishment,  and  an  interpreting 
response  to  whatever  is  deepest  in  them ;  wherein  still,  to 
this  day,  for  the  eye  that  will  look  well,  the  mystery  of 
existence  reflects  itself,  if  not  resolved,  yet  revealed,  and 
prophetically  emblemed ;  if  not  to  the  satisfying  of  the 
outward  sense,  yet  to  the  opening  of  the  inward  sense, 
which  is  the  far, grander  result."1 

Experience  of  Ruskin.  —  Among  the  masters  of  Eng- 
lish prose  in  the  nineteenth  century  was  John  Ruskin. 
In  his  autobiography  he  traces  his  literary  culture,  in 
large  measure,  to  his  early  study  of  the  Bible.  "  My 
mother  forced  me,"  he  says,  "  by  steady  toil,  to  learn 
long  chapters  of  the  Bible  by  heart ;  as  well  as  to  read 
it  every  syllable  through,  aloud,  hard  names  and  all, 
from  Genesis  to  the  Apocalypse,  about  once  a  year ; 
and  to  that  discipline  —  patient,  accurate,  and  resolute 
—  I  owe,  not  only  a  knowledge  of  the  book,  which  I 

i  Carlyle's  Works,  Vol.  XVI.,  p.  125. 


RELATION  OF   THE^' BIBLE:  TWMQDEKX*  LIEE  3 

find  occasionally  serviceable,  but  much  of  my  general 
power  of  taking  pains,  and  the  best  part  of  my  taste  in 
literature."  1 

Fundamental  View  of  the  World.  —  The  greatest  ques- 
tion that  can  engage  the  thoughts  of  men  is  the  origin 
and  purpose  of  the  world.  Whence  came  the  globe 
upon  which  we  live,  and  all  the  shining  hosts  of  the 
sky?  Whence  came  man,  with  all  his  wondrous  facul- 
ties, and  what  is  the  purpose  of  his  being?  These  ques- 
tions have  engaged  the  attention  of  all  thoughtful  peoples, 
and  called  forth  various  answers.  Thus  we  have  the  pan- 
theism of  the  Brahman,  the  materialism  of  the  Greek, 
and  the  agnosticism  of  modern  times. 

But  the  most  rational  and  most  satisfying  philosophy 
of  life  is  found  in  the  Scriptures.  It  is  the  prevailing 
view  of  all  Christian  nations.  According  to  this  funda- 
mental view,  which  is  distinguished  as  theism,  we  believe 
that  "  in  the  beginning  God  created  the  heaven  and  the 
earth  "  ; 2  or,  as  Paul  expresses  it,  that  "  of  Him,  and 
through  Him,  and  to  Him  are  all  things."3  Behind  the 
visible  world  is  an  omnipresent  personal  Being,  who 
orders  all  things  in  wisdom  and  love.  "  In  Him  we  live 
and  move  and  have  our  being."  4 

Source  of  Christianity.  —  Christianity,  which  is  the 
faith  of  about  one-fourth  of  the  population  of  the  globe,  is 
one  of  the  great  world  religions.  Though  it  is  perhaps 
out-numbered  by  Buddhism,  Christianity  is  the  religion  of 
the  most  enlightened  and  most  powerful  nations  of  the 
earth.  It  is  making  more  rapid  progress  to-day  than 
any  other  religion  ;  and  if  the  visions  of  its  prophetic 
seers  are  to  be  realized,  it  is  destined  to  become  the  re- 
ligion of  all  peoples.  In  the  language  of  the  second 

l  Ruskin's  "  Praeterita,"  ch.  i.       2  Gen.  i :  i.       3  Rom.  II :  36.       *  Acts  17  :  28. 


O   BIBLE  STUDY 

Psalm,  the  heathen  will  become  His  inheritance,  and  the 
uttermost  parts  of  the  earth  His  possession.1 

The  source  of  this  advancing  and  triumphant  religion 
is  found  in  the  facts  and  truths  of  the  Bible.  Old  Tes- 
tament history  laid  the  foundation  by  substituting  a  pure 
monotheism  for  the  polytheistic  idolatry  of  surrounding 
nations.  On  this  foundation  there  arose,  in  the  fulness 
of  time,  the  gospel  of  Christ,  with  its  reclaiming  truth 
and  power.  Since  his  brief  ministry  in  the  world,  the 
new  religion  has  continued  to  extend  its  influence  until 
to-day  the  whole  world  feels  its  power. 

Ecclesiastical  Organizations.  —  Though  Christianity  is 
essentially  a  religion  of  the  soul,  it  has  naturally  assumed 
an  outward  form.  The  individual  followers  of  Christ  have 
felt  the  invisible  bonds  of  a  divine  brotherhood ;  and  in 
the  interests  of  their  own  religious  life,  as  well  as  for  the 
propagation  of  their  faith,  they  early  associated  themselves 
in  congregations.  These  congregations,  moved  by  the  same 
impulse,  gradually  grouped  themselves  in  larger  bodies, 
which  had  their  limits  set  by  national  boundaries  or  by 
considerations  of  administrative  efficiency.  At  a  later 
time  differences  of  theological  belief  created  new  divisions. 
In  these  various  ways  originated  the  national  churches  of 
to-day,  and  the  great  divisions  of  Protestantism  and  Roman 
Catholicism.  Unfortunately  these  ecclesiastical  organiza- 
tions have  in  many  cases  failed  to  exemplify  the  pure  and 
unselfish  precepts  of  the  gospel. 

But  however  great  the  differences  in  other  respects,  all 
parts  of  the  Christian  church  agree  in  their  profound 
reverence  for  the  sacred  Scriptures.  The  Bible  is  regarded 
by  them  all  as  the  original  source  of  the  articles  of  faith 
and  of  the  rules  of  life.  It  is  made  prominent  in  all  as- 

iPs.  2:8. 


RELATION  OF   THE   BIBLE   TO  MODERN  LIFE  5 

semblies  of  worship ;  and  week  after  week  without  ceasing, 
it  is  officially  expounded  to  deepen  the  spiritual  life  and  to 
sanctify  the  daily  conduct.  It  is  multiplied  by  great  pub- 
lication societies,  and  systematically  scattered  among  all 
nations  and  tongues. 

Modern  Democracy.  —  For  more  than  a  hundred  years  a 
great  democratic  movement  has  been  going  forward  through- 
out Christendom.  At  the  close  pf  the  eighteenth  century 
that  movement  strongly  manifested  itself  in  the  popular  up- 
rising of  the  American  and  the  French  revolutions.  Its 
fundamental  principle,  as  stated  in  the  Declaration  of  In- 
dependence, is  equality  in  civil  rights.  With  the  adoption 
of  this  principle,  all  artificial  distinctions,  such  as  master 
and  slave,  nobles  and  commons,  kings  and  subjects,  are 
forever  done  away. 

Whatever  may  have  been  the  immediate  agencies  that 
led  to  a  recognition  of  the  principle  of  civil  equality,  there 
can  be  little  doubt  that  it  rests  ultimately  on  a  great  truth 
of  the  New  Testament.  That  truth  is  the  fatherhood  of 
God,  and  the  consequent  brotherhood  of  man.  When 
Jesus  declared  "  all  ye  are  brethren,"  He  broke  down  once 
for  all  the  barriers  of  caste,  and  nullified  the  arrogant  as- 
sumptions of  a  privileged  nobility  and  absolute  sovereigns 
by  divine  right.  In  its  fundamental  teachings  the  Bible  is 
unquestionably  democratic. 

Relation  to  Education.  —  Though  there  was  much  in  the 
education  of  pagan  antiquity  that  was  admirable,  it  re- 
mained for  Christianity  to  extend  the  blessings  of  culture 
to  all  classes  of  society.  As  we  have  just  seen,  it  rec- 
ognizes the  endless  worth  of  the  individual  as  a  child  of 
God.  The  faculties  with  which  men  are  endowed  are 
regarded  as  talents  which  are  to  be  improved  and  employed 
in  the  service  of  righteousness.  As  a  logical  consequence 


6  AN  INTRODUCTION    TO   BIBLE  STUDY 

of  these  truths,  no  one,  whether  high  or  low,  rich  or  poor, 
male  or  female,  is  to  be  excluded  from  the  blessings  of 
education.  The  obligation  of  universal  education  is  thus 
seen  to  be  involved  in  the  fundamental  teachings  of  the 
Bible. 

It  is  a  notable  fact  that  popular  education  to-day 'is  due 
to  a  movement  originating  in  the  need  of  Bible  study.  It 
was  a  fundamental  principle  of  the  Protestant  reformation 
of  the  sixteenth  century  that  the  Scriptures  are  the  only  rule 
of  religious  faith  and  life.  This  principle  brought  with  it 
the  obligation  to  place  every  one  in  a  position  to  read  the 
Bible ;  and  thus,  by  a  logical  necessity  from  its  principles, 
Protestantism  became  the  mother  of  popular  education. 
Luther  and  the  other  great  Protestant  reformers  became 
earnest  and  successful  advocates  of  public  schools. 

An  Interesting  Example.  —  The  relation  of  Bible  study 
to  public  schools  is  that  of  cause  and  effect.  This  fact  is 
clearly  brought  out  in  the  remarkable  action  of  the  General 
Court  of  Massachusetts  in  1647.  IR  promulgating  an  order 
for  the  establishment  of  primary  schools,  the  Court  explained 
its  action  as  follows :  "  It  being  one  chief  project  of  the  old 
deluder  Satan  to  keep  men  from  the  knowledge  of  the 
Scriptures,  as  in  former  times  by  keeping  them  in  an  un- 
known tongue,  so  in  these  latter  times  by  persuading  from 
the  use  of  tongues,  that  so  at  least  the  true  sense  and  mean- 
ing of  the  original  might  be  clouded  by  false  glosses  of 
saint-seeming  deceivers ;  that  learning  may  not  be  buried 
in  the  grave  of  our  fathers  in  the  church  and  common- 
wealth, the  Lord  assisting  our  endeavors, 

"It  is  therefore  ordered,  that  every  township  in  this  juris- 
diction, after  the  Lord  hath  increased  them  to  the  number 
of  fifty  householders,  shall  then  forthwith  appoint  one  within 
their  town  to  teach  all  such  children  as  shall  resort  to  him 


RELATION   OF   THE  BIBLE  TO  MODERN  LIFE  7 

to  write  and  read,  etc." l    This  was  the  beginning  of  popu- 
lar education  in  our  country. 

Position  of  Woman.  —  The  fundamental  teachings  of 
the  Bible  have  contributed  immensely  to  the  social  elevation 
of  woman.  Though  parts  of  the  Scriptures  reflect  the 
Oriental  customs  of  the  time,  as  in  the  polygamy  of  Abraham 
and  the  harem  of  Solomon,  the  statement  of  underlying 
principles  is  altogether  in  favor  of  woman's  elevation  and 
independence.  In  the  first  chapter  of  Genesis  it  is  clearly 
announced  that  woman,  no  less  than  man,  is  created 
in  the  image  of  God.  Through  many  centuries  the 
feeling,  often  obscure  and  unrecognized,  that  woman  is  a 
child  of  God  has  combated  and  gradually  overcome  many 
of  the  prejudices  and  wrongs  descending  from  barbarous 
ages  and  Oriental  countries.  It  is  chiefly  due  to  the  influ- 
ence of  Scripture  teaching  that  woman  is  no  longer  a 
slave  or  chattel,  as  in  ancient  times  and  in  non-Christian 
lands  to-day. 

In  recent  decades  the  moral  sense  of  Europe  and 
America  —  a  sense  developed  through  Christian  teaching 
-  has  accomplished  very  much  in  securing  for  woman 
her  natural  rights.  The  same  sense  of  justice  that  swept 
away  caste  and  abolished  African  slavery,  also  moved  for 
the  liberation  of  woman.  She  now  has  a  large  measure  of 
legal  independence.  Her  property  and  earnings  are  her 
own  ;  they  cannot,  against  her  will,  be  appropriated  by 
her  husband.  Nearly  all  occupations  are  now  open  to  her 
as  a  means  of  earning  an  honest  livelihood. 

Though  woman  is  generally  excluded  from  political  life, 
she  shares  in  the  larger  social  and  intellectual  interests  of 
our  time  ;  and  through  various  organizations,  as  in  local 
leagues  and  national  unions,  she  has  wrought  mightily  for 

1  Painter's  "  History  of  Education,"  p.  383. 


8  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

the  moral  betterment  of  the  nation.  In  place  of  being 
kept  in  ignorance,  as  in  ancient  Athens,  she  has  the  same 
educational  advantages  as  man,  and  her  sphere  of  useful- 
ness is  vastly  enlarged.  Thus,  though  the  fundamental 
teachings  of  Scripture  have  not  yet  found  complete  ex- 
emplification, they  have  achieved  much  for  the  freedom 
and  social  elevation  of  woman. 

Marriage.  —  In  no  other  particular,  perhaps,  has  the 
Bible  accomplished  more  for  the  elevation  of  woman  and 
the  welfare  of  society  than  in  its  teachings  about  marriage. 
In  the  midst  of  the  polygamous  Orient,  the  Bible  made 
marriage  consist  in  the  union  of  one  man  and  one  woman 
for  life.  The  wife  is  not  to  be  the  slave  of  her  husband ; 
she  is  to  be  "  a  help  meet  for  him,"  1  and  the  two  are  to 
work  together  in  the  most  intimate  bonds  of  love  and  help- 
fulness in  fulfilling  the  destinies  of  life.  "Therefore  shall 
a  man  leave  his  father  and  his  mother,  and  shall  cleave 
unto  his  wife  ;  and  they  shall  be  one  flesh."  2 

The  teachings  of  Jesus  in  regard  to  marriage  and  di- 
vorce are  very  explicit  and  forcible.  The  author  of  the 
book  of  Deuteronomy,  influenced  by  Oriental  custom,  had 
permitted  the  husband  on  a  slight  pretext  to  divorce  his 
wife.3  This  procedure  was  at  once  a  degradation  of 
woman  and  a  danger  to  society.  The  attempt  of  the 
Pharisees  to  entrap  Jesus  in  His  teachings  led  Him  to  re- 
pudiate the  easy  Deuteronomic  method  of  dissolving  the 
marriage  tie.  He  concluded  His  interesting  and  profound 
discussion  in  these  words  :  "  Moses  because  of  the  hardness 
of  your  hearts  suffered  you  to  put  away  your  wives ;  but 
from  the  beginning  it  was  not  so.  And  I  say  unto  you, 
whosoever  shall  put  away  his  wife,  except  it  be  for  forni- 
cation, and  shall  marry  another,  committeth  adultery ; 

1  Gen.  2:18.  2  Gen.  2:24.  3  Deut.  24:1. 


RELATION   OF   THE  BIBLE  TO  MODERN   LIFE          9 

and  whoso  marrieth  her  which  is  put  away  doth  commit 
adultery."  1 

It  is  the  Scriptural  view  of  marriage  that  prevails 
throughout  Christendom  to-day.  It  is  commonly  cele- 
brated by  a  clergyman  as  a  religious  rite.  It  is  made  a 
union  for  life  ;  and  according  to  Scripture  teaching,  its 
celebration  is  generally  attended  with  emphatic  admoni- 
tions to  love  and  fidelity.  Under  the  influence  of  the 
Bible,  we  have  outgrown  the  loose  polygamous  notions 
and  practices  of  the  Orient,  and  now  punish  bigamy  or 
polygamy  as  a  crime. 

Slavery.  —  The  Bible  does  not  directly  prohibit  slavery. 
In  accordance  with  ancient  and  Oriental  custom,  slavery 
is  permitted  in  the  Old  Testament.  Both  in  Exodus  and 
Deuteronomy,  we  find  laws  for  the  regulation  of  slavery, 
and  for  the  mitigation  of  its  barbarity.  Unlike  the  prac- 
tice elsewhere  in  the  ancient  world,  the  old  Hebrew  master 
did  not  have  the  power  of  life  and  death  over  his  slaves, 
but  was  required  to  treat  them  with  humanity,  and  to  give 
them  freedom  after  six  years  of  service.  Only  by  the 
choice  of  the  slave  himself  did  he  become,  by  special 
ceremony,  a  bondman  for  life. 

But  in  the  case  of  slavery,  as  in  some  other  important 
interests,  it  is  the  fundamental  principle  or  spirit  of  the 
Scriptures  that  has  been  effective  in  overcoming  wrong. 
The  slave,  no  less  than  the  master,  is  a  child  of  God,  who 
is  "without  respect  of  persons."2  The  equality  of  all 
classes  in  sharing  the  blessings  of  the  gospel  is  explicitly 
and  repeatedly  set  forth.  As  Paul  declares,  "there  is 
neither  Jew  nor  Greek,  there  is  neither  bond  nor  free, 
there  is  neither  male  nor  female;  for  ye  are  all  one  in 
Christ."  3 

1  Matt.  19 :  8,  9.  ^  i  Pet.  i :  17.  «  Gal.  3 :  28. 


10  AN  INTRODUCTION    TO   BIBLE  STUDY 

A  beautiful  illustration  of  the  spirit  of  the  gospel  is 
given  in  the  case  of  Onesimus,  a  slave  who  had  robbed  his 
master  Philemon  at  Colossae  and  fled  to  Rome.  There  he 
came  under  the  influence  of  Paul,  by  whom  he  was  con- 
verted to  Christianity.  By  the  advice  of  the  apostle,  the 
converted  slave  consented  to  return  to  his  former  master. 
He  bore  with  him  a  letter  from  Paul  to  Philemon,  in  which 
we  recognize  at  once  the  soul  of  courtesy  and  the  depth  of 
Christian  love.  The  apostle  calls  Onesimus,  not  a  slave, 
but  "my  own  son";  and  he  tenderly  entreats  Philemon 
to  receive  the  runaway  "  not  now  as  a  servant,  but  above 
a  servant,  a  brother  beloved,  both  in  the  flesh  and  in  the 
Lord."  1  Thus,  without  any  formal  denunciation  of  slavery, 
Paul  dissolves  it  in  the  riches  of  a  Christian  love  and 
brotherhood. 

Economic  Questions.  —  Though  the  Bible  is  not  a  book 
on  political  economy,  it  announces  ethical  principles  that 
bear  upon  all  the  industrial  and  commercial  relations  of 
life.  On  the  one  hand,  it  denounces  the  spirit  of  avarice, 
dishonesty,  and  oppression,  out  of  which  have  grown  all 
the  wrongs  that  have  disturbed  the  industrial  conditions 
of  the  past  and  that  lie  at  the  basis  of  the  industrial  con- 
flicts of  the  present.  Thus  Paul,  after  speaking  of  the 
temporary  character  of  wealth,  continues :  "  They  that 
desire  to  be  rich  fall  into  a  temptation  and  snare  and 
many  foolish  and  hurtful  lusts,  such  as  drown  men  in 
destruction  and  perdition.  For  the  love  of  money  is  a 
root  of  all  kinds  of  evil ;  which  some  reaching  after  have 
been  led  astray  from  the  faith,  and  have  pierced  them- 
selves through  with  many  arrows."  2 

On  the  other  hand,  a  positive  and  all-embracing  princi- 
ple, which  has  been  well  designated  the  Golden  Rule,  has 

1  Phil.  1:16.  2  i  Tim.  6:9,  10  (R.V.). 


RELATION   OF   THE  BIBLE   TO  MODERN   LIFE         n 

been  laid  down  for  the  guidance  of  all  social  life.  "  What- 
soever ye  would  that  men  should  do  to  you,"  said  the  great 
Master,  "  do  ye  even  so  to  them."  l  On  another  occasion 
Jesus  emphasized  this  positive  principle  still  more  strongly. 
When  a  Pharisee,  wishing  to  put  him  to  confusion,  inquired 
which  was  the  greatest  of  all  the  commandments,  Jesus 
answered  :  "  Thou  shalt  love  the  Lord  thy  God  with  all  thy 
heart,  and  with  all  thy  soul,  and  with  all  thy  mind.  This 
is  the  first  and  great  commandment  And  the  second 
is  like  unto  it,  thou  shalt  love  thy  neighbor  as  thyself. 
On  these  two  commandments  hang  all  the  law  and  the 
prophets."  2 

The  tendency  to  substitute  a  religion  of  forms  for  a  re- 
ligion of  righteousness  has  existed  in  every  age.  This  ten- 
dency manifested  itself  among  the  ancient  Hebrews  as  it  is 
to  be  seen  in  many  parts  of  the  church  to-day.  It  was  this 
tendency  which  permitted  a  man  at  the  same  time  to  be 
religious  and  unjust  in  his  social  relations,  that  evoked  some 
of  the  most  eloquent  denunciations  of  the  Old  Testament 
prophets.  "  Bring  no  more  vain  oblations,"  exclaims  Isaiah, 
as  he  speaks  in  the  name  of  Jehovah ;  "  incense  is  an 
abomination  unto  me ;  the  new  moons  and  Sabbaths,  the 
calling  of  assemblies,  I  cannot  away  with  ;  3  it  is  iniquity, 
even  the  solemn  meeting.  Wash  you,  make  you  clean  ; 
put  away  the  evil  of  your  doings  from  before  mine  eyes ; 
cease  to  do  evil ;  learn  to  do  well ;  seek  judgment,  relieve 
the  oppressed,  judge  the  fatherless,  plead  for  the  widow."4 

Literature.  —  The  literature  of  Europe  and  America 
may  be  fairly  characterized  as  a  Christian  literature.  The 
ethical  and  religious  principles  that  pervade  its  warp  and  woof 
are  drawn  more  or  less  directly  from  the  Bible.  The  serious 

1  Matt.  7  :  12.  2  Matt.  22:  37-40. 

8  That  \s,put  up  with,  or  endure.  4  Is.  i :  13-17. 


12  AN   INTRODUCTION    TO   BIBLE  STUDY 

intellectual  activity  of  the  Middle  Ages  —  an  activity  char- 
acterized by  rare  acuteness  —  was  devoted  chiefly  to  a 
discussion  of  dogmas  or  truths  originally  derived  from  the 
Scriptures.  At  the  present  time  a  considerable  part  of  our 
voluminous  publications  deals  with  historical,  ethical,  or 
theological  questions  started  by  the  Bible. 

It  is  notable  that  some  of  the  greatest  poems  of  modern 
times  treat  of  biblical  themes.  Dante's  "  Divina  Commedia  " 
records  the  incidents  of  an  imaginative  visit  to  hell,  pur- 
gatory, and  heaven  as  these  localities  were  conceived  of  in 
the  fourteenth  century.  Milton's  great  epic,  based  on  the 
opening  chapters  of  'Genesis,  thus  states  its  theme  in  the 
opening  lines :  — 

"  Of  man's  first  disobedience,  and  the  fruit 
Of  that  forbidden  tree,  whose  mortal  taste 
Brought  death  into  the  world,  and  all  our  woe, 
With  loss  of  Eden,  till  one  greater  man 
Restore  us,  and  regain  the  blissful  seat, 
Sing,  heavenly  Muse." 

Likewise  Goethe's  great  poem  of  "  Faust  "  sets  forth 
Scriptural  truth.  It  teaches,  as  does  the  book  of  Ecclesiastes, 
the  insufficiency  of  knowledge,  self-indulgence,  power,  and 
aesthetic  culture,  to  satisfy  the  deep  longings  of  our  nature. 
It  reaches  the  conclusion  that  only  the  spirit  of  love  and  of 
unselfish  labor  for  others  can  bring  deep-seated  peace  and 
joy.  The  great  tragedies  of  Shakespeare  —  King  Lear, 
Hamlet,  Macbeth  —  are  only  illustrations  of  the  biblical 
principle  that  "  the  wages  of  sin  is  death."  l 

Lyrical  Poetry.  —  In  addition  to  these  long  and  cele- 
brated poems,  the  number  of  which  might  be  indefinitely 
extended,  the  Scriptures  have  inspired  an  incalculable 
quantity  of  lyrical  verse.  There  is  scarcely  a  prominent 

l  Rom.  6 :  23. 


RELATION   OF   THE  BIBLE   TO  MODERN  LIFE         13 

poet  of  Europe  or  America  who  has  not  somewhere  treated 
of  biblical  truth  or  biblical  incident.  The  writers  of  religious 
lyrics,  many  of  which  find  a  place  in  our  hymn-books,  are 
literally  to  be  numbered  by  the  hundred.  Even  the  less 
serious  poets,  like  Thomas  Moore  and  Lord  Byron,  some- 
times turn  aside  from  their  mocking,  satirical,  or  secular 
subjects  to  dwell  on  Scriptural  truths.  Thus  Moore,  expand- 
ing a  passage  from  one  of  the  psalms,  beautifully  sings  :  — 

"  Thou  art,  O  God,  the  life  and  light ' 
Of  all  this  wondrous  world  we  see ; 
Its  glow  by  day,  its  smile  by  night 

Are  but  reflections  caught  from  Thee. 
Where'er  we  turn,  Thy  glories  shine, 
And  all  things  fair  and  bright  are  Thine." l 

In  like  manner  Byron,  in  his  "  Hebrew  Melodies,"  cele- 
brates various  themes  drawn  from  the  Old  Testament. 
In  "  Saul "  he  describes  the  spectral  visitation  of  the 
prophet  Samuel;2  in  the  "Vision  of  Belshazzar"  he 
portrays  the  frightful  apparition  of  a  hand  as  it  traced 
mysterious  and  ominous  words  on  the  palace  wall ;  3  in 
"  By  the  Rivers  of  Babylon  "  he  paraphrases  a  psalm  of 
the  captivity;4  and  in  "  The  Destruction  of  Sennacherib" 
he  versified  an  incident  of  Hebrew  history  in  the  well- 
known  lines  beginning :  — 

"  The  Assyrian  came  down  like  the  wolf  on  the  fold, 
And  his  cohorts  were  gleaming  in  purple  and  gold ; 
And  the  sheen  of  their  spears  was  like  stars  on  the  sea, 
When  the  blue  wave  rolls  nightly  on  deep  Galilee.11 5 

Poets  of  Truth  and  Righteousness.  —  It  is  hardly  too 
much  to  claim  that  the  great  poets  of  the  nineteenth  century 

1  Compare  Ps.  74  :  16,  17.  See  also  Moore's  paraphrase  of  Miriam's  song  in 
Ex.  15:20,21.  2i  Sam.  28:7-25.  8  Pan.  5.  4  PS.  137. 

5  2  Kings,  18  and  19. 


14  AN   INTRODUCTION    TO   BIBLE   STUDY 

in  England  and  America  were,  like  the  ancient  Hebrew 
prophets,  preachers  of  truth  and  righteousness.  In  the 
presence  of  a  materialistic  philosophy,  which  denied  the 
high  spiritual  truths  of  God,  and  providence,  and  immor- 
tality, they  steadfastly  clung  to  the  invisible  and  eternal. 
Wordsworth  felt  the  mystery  of  that  unseen  Presence  which 
pervades  all  things  and  which  the  psalmist  of  Israel  had 
celebrated  millenniums  ago.  In  "  Tintern  Abbey "  we 

read:  — 

"  And  I  have  felt 

A  presence  that  disturbs  me  with  the  joy 
Of  elevated  thoughts  :  a  sense  sublime 
Of  something  far  more  deeply  interfused, 
Whose  dwelling  is  the  light  of  setting  suns, 
And  the  round  ocean  and  the  living  air 
And  the  blue  sky,  and  in  the  mind  of  man; 
A  motion  and  a  spirit,  that  impels 
All  thinking  things,  all  objects  of  all  thought, 
And  rolls  through  all  things."1 

In  the  closing  stanzas  of  "  The  Ancient  Mariner  "  Cole- 
ridge declares  the  supremacy  of  love.  This  is  the  truth 
which  Paul,  in  the  famous  thirteenth  chapter  of  I  Corin- 
thians, had  eloquently  proclaimed  many  centuries  before. 
Here  are  the  words  of  the  English  poet  :  - 

"  He  prayeth  best  who  loveth  best 
All  things  both  great  and  small ; 
For  the  dear  God  who  loveth  us, 
He  made  and  loveth  all.1' 

One  of  the  precious  truths  of  the  Scriptures  is  the  fact 
of  divine  providence.  It  was  repeatedly  and  beautifully 
presented  by  Jesus  Christ.  "  The  very  hairs  of  your  head," 
He  said,  "are  numbered."  Now  listen  to  Robert  Brown- 

1  Compare  Ps.  139 :  7-10. 


RELATION    OF   THE   BIBLE    TO   MODERN   LIFE         15 

ing's  expansion  of  this  conception  of  the  divine  love  and 

care  :  — 

"  God  smiles  as  He  has  always  smiled ; 

Ere  suns  and  moons  could  wax  and  wane, 
Ere  stars  were  thundergirt,  or  piled 
The  heavens,  God  thought  on  me  His  child ; 

Ordained  a  life  for  me,  arrayed 
Its  circumstances  every  one 

To  the  minutest ;  ay,  God  said 

This  head  this  hand  should  rest  upon 
Thus,  ere  He  fashioned  star  or  sun."  l 

Nearly  three  thousand  years  ago  David,  "  the  sweet 
singer  of  Israel,"  celebrated  the  goodness  of  God.2  Else- 
where in  the  Old  Testament,  as  in  the  New,  the  same 
divine  attribute  is  dwelt  upon.  In  describing  the  divine 
nature  John  declares  that  "  God  is  love."  3  Many  of  our 
modern  poets  have  been  inspired  by  the  same  exalted  theme, 
and  have  found  comfort  and  strength  in  its  truth.  Thus 
Whittier,  as  he  thinks  of  death,  gives  admirable  expres- 
sion to  his  sense  of  trust :  — 

"  And  so  beside  the  Silent  Sea 

I  wait  the  muffled  oar; 
No  harm  from  Him  can  come  to  me 
On  ocean  or  on  shore. 

"  I  know  not  where  His  islands  lift 

Their  fronded  palms  in  air ; 
I  only  know  I  cannot  drift 
Beyond  His  love  and  care.1'4 

An  endless  life  beyond  the  gates  of  death  —  this  is  one 
of  the  great  truths  of  Scripture.  It  is  not  clearly  revealed 
in  the  Old  Testament,  but  it  is  made  prominent  in  the 
New.  In  comforting  His  disciples  in  view  of  His  approach- 

1   Browning's  "  Johannes  Agricola  in  Meditation."  2  Ps    25. 

4  Whittier's  "  The  Eternal  Goodness."  3  i  John  4:  16. 


16  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

ing  death,  Jesus  said  to  them  in  a  passage  of  exquisite 
tenderness  :  "  In  my  Father's  house  are  many  mansions : 
if  it  were  not  so,  I  would  have  told  you.  I  go  to  prepare  a 
place  for  you.  And  if  I  go  and  prepare  a  place  for  you,  I 
will  come  again  and  receive  you  unto  myself  ;  that  where 
I  am,  there  ye  may  be  also."  1  This  has  been  the  faith  of 
Christendom  for  nearly  two  thousand  years.  In  spite  of 
the  doubts  which  a  materialistic  philosophy  and  the  critical 
spirit  of  the  present  age  have  sometimes  started,  the  belief 
in  immortality —  a  belief  that  confers  infinite  dignity  upon 
mankind  —  is  held  to-day  by  our  ablest  thinkers  and  our 
noblest  poets.  Tennyson  has  convincingly  voiced  this 
belief  in  his  "  In  Memoriam  "  :  — 

"  Thou  wilt  not  leave  us  in  the  dust : 

Thou  madest  man,  he  knows  not  why, 
He  thinks  he  was  not  made  to  die ; 
And  Thou  hast  made  him  :  Thou  art  just." 

In  our  sense  of  need  and  helplessness,  the  soul  often 
cries  -out  intuitively  to  the  Invisible  and  Eternal.  The 
Scriptures  teach  that  human  prayer  is  heard  and  answered. 
The  great  Teacher  has  given  us  a  form  of  prayer,  and  en- 
couraged us  by  the  assurance  that  God  is  more  willing  than 
earthly  parents  to  bestow  good  gifts  upon  His  children.2 
This  same  truth  finds  expression  in  many  of  our  modern 
singers,  particularly  in  Tennyson,  who  in  his  "  Passing  of 
Arthur  "  declares  :  — 

"  More  things  are  wrought  by  prayer 
Than  this  world  dreams  of.     Wherefore  let  thy  voice 
Rise  like  a  fountain  for  me  night  and  day. 
For  what  are  men  better  than  sheep  or  goats 
That  nourish  a  blind  life  within  the  brain, 

1  John  14 :  2,  3.  2  Matt.  7 :  n. 


RELATION   OF   THE  BIBLE   TO  MODERN   LIFE         17 

If,  knowing  God,  they  lift  not  hands  of  prayer 
Both  for  themselves  and  those  that  call  them  friend? 
For  so  the  whole  round  earth  is  every  way 
Bound  by  gold  chains  about  the  feet  of  God." 

Architecture.  —  The  Scriptures  have  influenced  art 
scarcely  less  than  they  have  influenced  literature.  This 
is  particularly  true  of  the  Middle  Ages  and  the  sixteenth 
and  seventeenth  centuries.  Though  the  church  is  relatively 
less  prominent  to-day  than  during  the  periods  just  men- 
tioned, the  truths  of  the  Bible  are  still  a  potent  influence  in 
the  realm  of  art.  Great  cathedrals  are  still  erected,  and 
great  paintings  are  still  devoted  to  Scripture  scenes. 

Among  the  architectural  wonders  of  Europe  are  the 
mighty  mediaeval  cathedrals,  which  have  been  happily 
called  "  miracles  in  stone."  They  sprang  from  a  deep 
religious  spirit.  Their  fundamental  plan  represents  the 
figure  of  the  cross,  on  which  the  founder  of  Christianity 
was  put  to  death ;  the  nave,  flanked  with  aisles,  corre- 
sponds to  the  base  of  the  cross,  the  transepts  to  the  arms, 
and  the  choir  to  the  top.  This  simple  plan  was  subject 
to  numberless  modifications,  which  produced  the  variety  to 
be  seen  to-day  in  those  imposing  mediaeval  structures. 

Ornamentation  and  Significance.  —  The  ornamentation 
o'f  these  cathedrals  is  as  admirable  as  it  is  astonishing. 
In  the  hands  of  the  mediaeval  masons  stone  seems  as 
plastic  as  wood  or  clay.  Foliage  forms  abound  in  the 
minor  ornaments ;  and  entire  facades,  as  in  the  cathedrals 
of  Notre  Dame,  Westminster,  and  York,  are  wrought 
into  forms  of  elaborate  beauty.  Statues  of  saints  abound  ; 
and  the  most  striking  incidents  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments  are  frequently  portrayed  in  bas-relief.  The 
walls  are  generally  adorned  with  Scriptural  frescoes ;  and 
from  the  tall  windows  flame  in  beautiful  colors  the  charac- 


l8  AN   INTRODUCTION    TO   BIBLE   STUDY 

ters  and  scenes  of  sacred  history.  In  all  the  large  towns 
and  cities  these  massive  piles  of  speaking  stone,  towering 
above  the  surrounding  buildings  and  looking  far  away  into 
the  country,  remind  the  toiling  population  of  the  preemi- 
nent claims  of  spiritual  things. 

Painting.  —  For  a  thousand  years  —  throughout  the 
Middle  Ages  and  longer  —  painting  was  the  servant  of  reli- 
gion. It  subserved  a  twofold  purpose  :  first,  it  was  used  to 
decorate  cathedrals  and  other  ecclesiastical  buildings ;  and 
second,  it  was  employed  to  teach  biblical  and  theological 
truths.  As  we  run  over  the  history  of  painting,  it  is  astonish- 
ing to  note  the  preponderance  of  religious  motive  through 
many  centuries.  There  is  scarcely  any  historic  scene  of 
importance  in  either  the  Old  or  the  New  Testament  that 
has  not  been  portrayed  on  cathedral  walls  or  made  to  flame 
from  cathedral  windows. 

With  the  Renaissance  of  the  fifteenth  century,  painting 
started  upon  a  new  era  of  development.  Since  that  time 
almost  every  country  in  Europe  has  had  its  world-famed 
artists.  In  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  Italy 
had  Raphael,  Michael  Angelo,  Titian,  Correggio,  Andrea 
del  Sarto,  Paul  Veronese ;  Germany,  Wolgemut,  Diirer, 
Cranach,  Holbein ;  France,  Nicolas  Poussin  and  Claude 
Lorrain  ;  Spain,  Murillo  and  Velasquez  ;  Flanders,  Rubens 
and  Van  Dyck ;  and  Holland,  Rembrandt.  All  these 
artists  employed  their  extraordinary  gifts,  to  a  greater  or 
less  degree,  in  illustrating  biblical  scenes.1 

1  Among  the  noteworthy  paintings  by  these  artists  maybe  mentioned  Raphael's 
"Transfiguration"  and  "  Sisline  Madonna";  Michael  Angelo's  "Last  Judg- 
ment"; Titian's  "Scourging  of  Christ";  Andrea  del  Sarto's  "Abraham  offering 
Isaac"  ;  Paul  Veronese's  "  Adoration  of  the  Wise  Men  ";  Durer's  "  Descent  from 
the  Cross  "  ;  Murillo's  "  Thirsting  Israelites  in  the  Desert "  ;  Poussin's  "  Adoration 
of  the  Magi,"  and  "Rebecca  and  Eliezer " ;  Rubens'  "Presentation  in  the 
Temple,"  and  "  Descent  from  the  Cross  " ;  and  Van  Dyck's  "  Christ  on  the  Cross. " 


RELATION   OF   THE   BIBLE   TO   MODERN   LIFE          19 

Though  art  has  naturally  shared  in  the  expanding  knowl- 
edge of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  has  immeasurably  en- 
larged the  scope  of  its  work,  great  painters  of  recent  years 
have  not  disdained  to  exercise  their  genius  upon  Scripture 
themes.  Many  will  recall  Munkacsy's  "  Christ  before 
Pilate,"  which  was  exhibited  in  different  parts  of  the 
world.  The  same  artist's  "  Christ  on  Calvary  "  is  likewise 
a  masterful  production.  The  American  painters,  Charles 
Sprague  Pearce  and  Frank  V.  du  Mond,  have  wrought  in 
the  same  field  ;  and  the  former's  "Annunciation  "  and  the 
latter's  "  Christ  and  the  Fishermen  "  are  worthy  of  men- 
tion. To  these  admirable  productions  might  be  added 
Leroy's  "  Christ  healing  the  Blind,"  Uhde's  "  The 
Announcement  to  the  Shepherds,"  and  Julius  Schmid's 
"Suffer  Little  Children  to  come  unto  Me,"  and  many 
others. 

Ethical  Ideals.  —  The  high  ethical  ideals  of  the  present 
day  are  directly  or  indirectly  traceable  to  the  teachings  of 
the  Bible.  The  Scriptures  declare  that  our  lives,  lifted 
above  the  insignificance  of  a  brief  material  existence,  are 
brought  into  immediate  and  imperishable  relations  with  the 
Governor  of  the  universe.  The  Old  Testament  enthrones 
Jehovah  as  a  God  of  righteousness,  who  demands  the  same 
moral  integrity  of  man.  This  fellowship  in  righteousness 
is  the  law  of  divine  harmony.  In  Leviticus  the  Lord  is 
represented  as  saying  to  the  Hebrews  whom  He  has  deliv- 
ered from  the  bondage  of  Egypt :  "  Ye  shall  therefore  be 
holy,  for  I  am  holy."1  This  same  principle  is  inculcated 
again  and  again  in  the  Scriptures. 

The  type  of  character  thus  demanded  of  us  embodies 
every  virtue  and  excludes  every  vice.  Jesus  distinctly  set 
up  this  ideal  when  He  said,  "  Be  ye  therefore  perfect,  even 

1  Lev.  ii  145. 


20  AN  INTRODUCTION    TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

as  your  Father  which  is  in  heaven  is  perfect." :  The  duties 
and  prohibitions  involved  in  the  biblical  conception  of  what 
human  life  should  be  are  summarily  set  forth  in  the  Ten 
Commandments ;  they  are  declared  with  still  greater  clear- 
ness and  fulness  in  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount;  last  of  all, 
they  are  exemplified  in  the  purity,  truth,  and  love  of  the 
great  Master  Himself.  Christ  is  the  incarnation  of  the 
highest  manhood  —  the  realized  ideal  of  the  human  race. 

Philanthropic  Movements.  —  Through  the  propaganda  of 
the  pulpit  and  the  press,  this  noble  Christian  ideal  has 
made  its  way  into  the  hearts  and  lives  of  men.  Though 
it  may  not  at  present  be  fully  adopted  as  a  working  prin- 
ciple, it  has  the  respect  and  confidence  of  all  right-thinking 
people.  In  an  increasing  degree,  it  is  coming  to  dominate 
the  personal  and  social  life  of  Christendom.  If  at  any  time 
it  is  temporarily  obscured  by  the  spirit  of  greed,  it  sooner 
or  later  asserts  itself  with  renewed  vigor. 

The  Christian  ideal  of  life  has  awakened  a  strong  sense 
of  social  obligation.  Relentless  war  is  being  made  upon 
every  evil  that  tends  to  degrade  or  disorganize  social  life. 
It  is  a  noteworthy  fact  that  the  most  powerful  temperance 
organization  to-day  calls  itself  the  Woman's  Christian  Tem- 
perance Union.  Men  of  wealth  are  feeling  more  and  more 
the  obligation  of  stewardship.  Never  before  were  there 
such  munificent  gifts  for  education,  libraries,  and  missions. 
Institutions  for  the  care  of  the  helpless  and  the  needy  — 
orphan  homes,  hospitals  for  the  insane,  schools  for  the  deaf 
and  blind  —  are  multiplied  on  every  hand.  Every  city  has 
its  charitable  organizations  for  helping  the  poor.  And  any 
widespread  calamity,  like  the  distress  of  pestilence  or>  the 
destruction  of  earthquake,  calls  forth  a  magnificent  display 
of  unselfish  munificence. 

1  Matt.  2  :  48. 


RELATION   OF   THE  BIBLE   TO  MODERN  LIFE         21 

Hopefulness  for  the  Future.  —  The  teachings  of  the 
Bible  have  begotten  a  hopeful  outlook  for  the  future.  It 
is  assumed  throughout  the  Scriptures,  as  it  is  declared  in 
Revelation,  "  the  Lord  God  omnipotent  reigneth."  1  The 
sacred  writers  recognize  a  forward  movement  in  humanity, 
—  "first  the  blade,  then  the  ear,  after  that  the  full  corn  in 
the  ear."  2  The  national  turnings  and  overturnings  narrated 
in  the  Old  Testament  are  presented  as  preparatory  to  the 
nobler  Christian  era.  "  When  the  fulness  of  time  was 
come,"  says  Paul,  "God  sent  forth  His  Son,  made  of  a 
woman,  made  under  the  law,  to  redeem  them  that  were 
under  the  law,  that  we  might  receive  the  adoption  of  sons."  3 

Jesus  expected  His  gospel  gradually  to  make  its  way 
among  men,  and  ultimately  gain  general  acceptance.  He 
compared  His  work  in  founding  the  kingdom  of  heaven  to 
a  grain  of  mustard  seed,  which  afterwards  grew  into  a  wide- 
spreading  tree ;  and  also  to  "  leaven  which  a  woman  took,  and 
hid  in  three  measures  of  meal,  till  the  whole  was  leavened."  4 
The  prophet  Isaiah  looked  forward  to  a  time  of  peace 
among  all  peoples.  "  They  shall  beat  their  swords  into 
ploughshares,"  he  predicted,  "and  their  spears  into  pruning- 
hooks  ;  nation  shall  not  lift  up  sword  against  nation,  neither 
shall  they  learn  war  any  more."  5  Moved  by  the  same  uplift- 
ing thought  of  universal  peace,  Tennyson  sang  in  well- 
known  lines  of  a  time,  — 

"When  the  war-drum  throbs  no  longer,  and  the  battle-flags 

are  furled 
In  the  parliament  of  man,  the  federation  of  the  world." 

What  our  seers  and  poets,  with  a  divine  hopefulness, 
have  thus  dreamed  of,  seems  to  have  the  beginning  of  its 
fulfilment  in  the  Peace  Conference  of  the  Hague. 

l  Rev.  19:6.       2  Mark  4:  28.     »Gal.  4:4,  5.      *  Matt.  13:33.      615.2:4. 


22  AN   INTRODUCTION    TO   BIBLE  STUDY 

Conclusion.  —  The  relation  of  the  Bible  to  modern  life  is 
thus  seen  to  be  all-pervading.  It  has  moulded  our  ways  of 
thinking;  it  has  supplied  our  fundamental  views  of  the 
world ;  it  has  developed  our  institutions  ;  it  has  inspired 
our  movements  of  reform  ;  it  has  exalted  us  with  its 
noble  ideals,  and  cheered  us  with  its  bright  hopes 
of  the  future.  No  one  can  enter  into  the  spirit  of  the 
modern  world  or  understand  its  deep  ethical  movements 
without  an  acquaintance  with  the  Scriptures.  The  utility 
of  a  knowledge  of  Greek  and  Roman  history  and  literature 
is  generally  recognized ;  but  a  fair  consideration  of  the 
matter  shows  that  an  acquaintance  with  the  facts  and 
truths  of  Scripture  is  of  still  higher  importance.  It  may 
be  justly  claimed  that  such  a  knowledge,  by  far  too  much 
neglected  at  the  present  time,  is  an  indispensable  element 
of  liberal  culture. 


RESEARCH    WORK 

The  students  should  carefully  look  up  the  following 
passages,  which  may  be  made  the  basis  of  comment  and 
discussion  by  the  teacher.  Many  of  these  passages  will 
show  that  the  Bible  still  has  a  message  for  our  age. 

The  origin  of  the  world,  Gen.  I  :  I  ;  Neh.  9:6;  Ps.  33  :  6 ;  Is.  42  :  5  ; 

Heb.  3:4;  Rom.  11  :  36. 
The  biblical  view  of  man's  origin,  Gen.   i  :  26-29 ;  2:  7i  Mai.  2:  10; 

Acts  1 7  :  24-29. 

The  right  use  of  our  talents,  Matt.  25  :  14-30  ;  Lu.  19 :  12-27. 
Marriage,  Gen.  2:18;  Matt.  19  :  3-9  ;  Mark  10  :  2-12. 
Bondmen  or  slaves,  Ex.  21:2-6;    Lev.  25:39-46;    Dent.  15:  12-19; 

Philemon. 
Ill-gotten  and  ill-used  riches,  Jer.   17:11;  Mic.  2  :  1-3  ;  Lu.  12  : 13-21  ; 

Jas.  5  :  1-6. 
Commercial    and    social  relations,  Lev.   19:35,  36;  Deut.  25:  13-16; 

Is.  I  :  13-17;  Matt.  7:  12;  22:  37-40;  Lu.  II  :  37-44- 


RELATION   OF   THE   BIBLE   TO   MODERN   LIFE         23 

The  omniscience  and  omnipresence  of  God,  Ps.  139:  1-12. 

The  nature  and  supremacy  of  love,  I  Cor.  13  ;   I  John  3  :  14-24. 

Divine  providence,  Ps.  34  ;  Matt.  6 :  25-34 ;   10  :  28-31. 

Immortality,  John  14:  1-3;   I  Cor.  15  :  53-58;  2  Tim.  4:  6-8. 

Prayer,  Matt.  6  :  5-15  ;  7  :  7-1  r  ;   Lu.  18  :  1-8  ;  Jas.  5  :  14-18. 

Ethical  conduct  and  ideals,  Ex.  20  :  2-17  ;  Matt.  5:2-16;  Gal.  5  :  14-26; 

Eph.  5  :  1-18. 
The  goal  of  national  changes,  Dan.  2  :  19-45  ;  Rev.  21  :  1-27. 


CHAPTER   II 

BACKGROUND    OF    HEBREW    HISTORY 

New  Sources  of  Information.  —  Until  a  few  decades  ago 
the  Bible  contained  the  oldest  trustworthy  records  of 
ancient  history.  In  recent  years  new  and  numerous 
sources  of  information  have  been  brought  to  light ;  and 
we  are  now  acquainted  with  great  world-empires  .that  form 
a  vast  background  for  Hebrew  history.  The  people  of 
Israel  are  antedated  by  the  empires  of  Mesopotamia  and 
Egypt  by  thousands  of  years.  Before  Moses  led  his 
people  from  Egyptian  bondage  or  Abraham  had  left  the 
city  of  Ur  in  Chaldea,  a  high  degree  of  civilization  existed 
on  the  banks  of  the  Nile  and  the  Euphrates.  We  cannot 
fully  understand  the  history  and  the  literature  of  the 
Hebrew  people  without  a  knowledge  of  these  anterior 
nations,  with  whom  at  times  the  Hebrews  stood  in  close 
political  and  commercial  relations,  and  whose  culture  they 
inherited  and  in  some  particulars  developed.1 

Explorers  and  Excavators.  —  For  these  new  and  invalu- 
able sources  of  information  we  are  indebted  to  the  labors 
of  enthusiastic  explorers  and  excavators.  The  French- 

1 "  In  the  age  to  which  the  migration  of  Terah  belonged,  Canaan  and  Babylonia 
were  in  connection  one  with  the  other.  Babylonian  kings  claimed  rule  over 
Canaan,  and  Canaanitish  merchants  were  established  in  Babylonia.  The  language 
of  Canaan  was  heard  in  the  Babylonian  cities,  and  even  the  rulers  of  the  land  were 
of  foreign  blood.  Between  Babylonia  and  Canaan  there  was  a  highway  which  had 
been  trodden  for  generations,  and  along  which  soldiers  and  civil  officials,  merchants, 
and  messengers,  passed  frequently  to  and  fro."  —  A.  H.  SAYCE,  "  Early  History  of 
the  Hebrews,"  p.  134. 

24 


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BACKGROUND    OF  HEBREW  HISTORY  25 

man  Botta  in  1842  and  the  Englishman  Layard  in  1845 
opened  the  way  with  excavations  at  Khorsabad  and 
Nimrud,  which  brought  to  light  long-buried  records  and 
monuments  of  Assyrian  civilization.  A  new  interest  in 
archaeological  research  was  awakened  in  Europe  and 
America.  Many  other  explorers  —  Rawlinson,  George 
Smith,  De  Sarsec,  Peters,  Hilprecht  —  were  despatched 
to  the  Orient,  whose  excavations  at  Nippur,  Babylon, 
Nineveh,  and  elsewhere  have  uncovered  buried  temples 
and  palaces,  and  restored  to  the  world  great  libraries 
founded  by  enlightened  monarchs.  Explorers  have  been 
no  less  active  and  successful  in  Egypt.  As  a  result  of 
these  investigations,  we  are  able,  in  large  measure,  to  re- 
produce the  wonderful  historic  drama  that  for  thousands 
of  years  before  our  era  was  enacted  on  the  plains  of  Meso- 
potamia and  Egypt. 

The  Behistun  Inscription.  —  The  key  to  the  language  of 
Babylonia  and  Assyria  was  furnished  by  the  Behistun  in- 
scription which,  about  515  B.C.,  was  cut  on  the  polished 
surface  of  a  limestone  cliff  in  the  Zagros  Mountains  by 
Darius,  King  of  Persia.  This  inscription,  which  contains 
a  laudatory  account  of  the  king's  numerous  conquests,  was 
copied  by  Henry  C.  Rawlinson  in  1835.  When  his  labori- 
ous and  dangerous  task  was  finished,  he  found  that  he  had 
not  one  but  three  languages  in  his  possession.  After  years 
of  study,  he  succeeded  in  translating  the  five  columns  — 
nearly  400  lines  —  of  the  old  Persian  writing. 

The  Median  and  Babylonian  inscriptions  were  forced 
later  to  yield  up  their  secrets.  And  to-day  Assyriologists 
in  Europe  and  America,  developing  the  work  thus  begun, 
are  busy  deciphering  the  small  clay  tablets  of  cuneiform 
writing  which  have  been  dug  up  from  the  ruins  of  buried 
and  sometimes  forgotten  cities.  The  literary  and  his- 


26  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO   BIBLE  STUDY 

toric  treasures  already  translated  into  English  fill  many 
volumes. 

The  Rosetta  Stone.  —  What  the  Behistun  inscription  did 
for  the  language  of  Babylonia  was  accomplished  by  the 
Rosetta  stone  for  the  language  of  Egypt.  Unlike  the 
wedge-shaped  characters  of  Mesopotamia,  the  writing  of 
Egypt  was  hieroglyphic.  At  first  the  hieroglyphs  con- 
sisted of  pictures  of  objects;  but  at  a  later  time  they 
acquired,  to  some  extent,  a  phonetic  or  syllabic  force.  A 
simplified  form  of  this  writing,  which  was  current  among 
the  people,  is  known  as  demotic. 

The  means  of  solving  the  mystery  of  this  writing,  which 
had  remained  unread  for  more  than  2000  years,  was  fur- 
nished by  the  famous  Rosetta  stone,  which  was  discovered 
in  1799  during  Napoleon's  expedition  into  Egypt.  This 
stone,  now  an  object  of  interest  in  the  British  Museum, 
contains  a  trilingual  inscription,  the  first  part  of  which  is 
in  hieroglyphics,  the  second  in  demotic  characters,  and  the 
last  in  uncial  Greek.  The  Greek  was  easily  read;  and 
finally,  through  the  labors  of  Dr.  Young,  of  England,  and 
Champollion,  of  France,  the  enigma  of  Egyptian  writing 
was  solved,  and  the  ancient  records,  which  covered  the 
monuments  and  temple  walls  of  that  country,  were  opened 
to  the  world. 

i.   MESOPOTAMIA 

Mesopotamian  Region.  —  Though  etymologically  re- 
stricted to  the  plain  lying  between  the  Tigris  and  the 
Euphrates,  the  word  Mesopotamia  is  loosely  used  to  desig- 
nate the  entire  region  that  stretches  from  the  Zagros 
mountains  on  the  east  to  the  Syrian  mountains  on  the 
west.  On  the  north  it  is  bounded  by  the  mountains  of 
Armenia  and  on  the  south  by  the  deserts  of  Arabia.  This 


THE  ROSETTA  STONE 


BACKGROUND   OF  HEBREW  HISTORY  27 

extended  region  —  the  principal  scene  of  the  world's  his- 
tory for  thousands  of  years  —  is  drained  by  two  great 
rivers,  the  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris,  which  rise  among 
the  snow-capped  mountains  of  Armenia.  Though  now  a 
desolate  and  arid  region,  the  home  of  Arabian  nomads,  it 
once  Blossomed  as  "the  garden  of  the  Lord." 

Its  natural  fertility  was  increased  by  a  vast  system  of 
irrigation,  which  carried  the  fruitful  waters  of  the  Eu- 
phrates and  the  Tigris  to  distant  parts  of  the  lowland 
plains.  Traces  of  the  great  irrigating  canals,  some  of 
which  are  named  in  the  Scriptures,  are  still  discernible, 
while  the  lofty  mounds,  which  rise  in  every  direction  and 
conceal  the  ruins  of  once  splendid  temples  and  palaces, 
bear  melancholy  testimony  to  the  former  wealth  and 
grandeur  of  the  country. 

In  the  southeast  lay  the  district  of  Chaldea;  farther  to 
the  north  was  Babylonia ;  and  northeast  of  the  Tigris 
stretched  Assyria.  To  the  east  of  these  districts,  each  of 
which  was  successively  the  seat  of  a  monarchy,  lay  Elam, 
Media,  and  Persia.  All  these  countries  were  more  or  less 
intimately  associated  with  Hebrew  history. 

Chaldea.  —  The  southeastern  part  of  the  Mesopotamian 
region,  called  in  Genesis  "  the  land  of  Shinar,"  was  prob- 
ably the  cradle  of  human  civilization.  Though  the  be- 
ginnings are  lost  in  the  darkness  of  antiquity,  authentic 
records,  as  carved  on  palace  and  temple  walls,  take  us 
back  some  five  or  six  thousand  years  before  the  Christian 
era.  In  the  tenth  chapter  of  Genesis,  with  its  remarkable 
ethnological  traditions,  Nimrod  is  made  the  founder  of 
"  Babylon,  and  Erech,  and  Accad,  and  Calneh,  in  the 
land  of  Shinar  "  ;  and  the  language  of  the  inscriptions  in 
the  most  ancient  parts  of  the  ruins  shows  that  the  original 
occupants  of  the  territory  were  not  of  Semitic  origin. 


28  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO   BIBLE  STUDY 

Various  Dynasties. — The  earliest  glimpses  we  get  of 
Chaldean  history,  as  derived  from  explorations,  reveal  to 
us  the  rivalries  of  neighboring  cities  and* petty  kings. 
A  parallel  is  found  in  the  condition  of  Canaan  at  the  time 
of  the  Israelitish  invasion.  The  tablets  and  monuments 
recently  exhumed  at  Telloh,  Nippur,  and  Mugheir  ac- 
quaint us  with  various  dynasties  that  had  their  capitals  in 
these  and  adjacent  cities.  Sargon  I.  (about  3800  B.C.) 
was  a  great  conqueror,  and  ultimately  extended  his  empire 
from  Elam  to  the  Mediterranean.  He  had  a  worthy  suc- 
cessor in  his  son  Naram-Sin,  who  in  the  proud  conscious- 
ness of  his  power  assumed  the  title  of  "  king  of  the  four 
quarters  of  the  world." 

The  city  of  Ur,  called  in  Genesis  "  Ur  of  the  Chaldees  " 
and  interesting  as  the  birthplace  of  Abraham,  was  at 
intervals  the  centre  of  three  dynasties.1  Ur-gur,  whose 
reign  is  placed  3200  B.C.,  —  a  thousand  years  or  more 
before  the  migration  of  Abraham  to  Canaan, — was  fa- 
mous as  a  builder  of  temples,  among  which  was  a  pyrami- 
dal structure  at  Nippur. 

Hammurabi  (2250  B.C.).  —  In  the  fourteenth  chapter 
of  Genesis  there  is  a  brief  account  of  a  war  between  four 
kings  of  the  east  with  five  kings  of  the  west.  It  was 
not  the  first  time,  as  we  have  seen,  that  monarchs  of 
lower  Mesopotamia  had  extended  their  arms  toward  the 
Mediterranean.  The  most  important  of  these  allied  in- 
vading kings  was  "Amraphel,  King  of  Shinar,"  who  has 
been  identified  with  Hammurabi.  He  reigned  at  Babylon 

1  "  Great  as  is  the  place  which  Babylon  has  occupied  in  the  world's  history 
beyond  all  the  cities  in  the  land  of  Shinar,  its  glory  in  those  far-back'  times  was 
eclipsed  by  the  famous  city  of  Ur.  Its  very  name,  signifying  city,  marks  its  pre- 
eminence. It  was  a  great  emporium  of  trade :  the  ships  of  Ur  brought  the  prod- 
ucts of  southern  Arabia  "to  Babylonia,  and,  it  may  be,  even  traded  with  the  land 
of  Egypt."  —  THOMAS  NICOL,  "  Recent  Archaeology  and  the  Bible,"  p.  112. 


BACKGROUND   OF  HEBREW  HISTORY  29 

about  2250  B.C.  ;  and  his  martial  prowess  extended  his 
dominion  in  all  directions. 

Code  of  Laws.  —  Hammurabi  was  not  only  a  victori- 
ous warrior,  but  also  a  beneficent  ruler.  His  code  of  laws, 
discovered  at  Susa  in  1902,  throws  an  interesting  light 
on  the  social  conditions  of  Chaldea  in  the  age  of  Abraham, 
the  progenitor  of  the  Hebrew  people.  It  is  inscribed  on 
a  pillar  of  black  diorite  nearly  eight  feet  high. 

The  prologue  to  the  code  reveals  the  upright  spirit  in 
which  Hammurabi  wished  to  rule.  He  recognized  a 
divine  call  "  to  cause  justice  to  prevail  in  the  land,  to  de- 
stroy the  wicked,  and  the  evil,  to  prevent  the  strong  from  op- 
pressing the  weak,  to  enlighten  the  land,  and  to  further  the 
welfare  of  the  people."  This  code,  which  consists  of  two 
hundred  and  eighty-two  paragraphs,  shows  an  elaborate 
social  organization.  Besides  miscellaneous  laws,  it  con- 
tains sections  relating  to  the  treatment  of  slaves,  to  leasing 
and  tillage,  the  management  of  irrigating  canals,  commer- 
cial transactions,  and  divorce  and  inheritance.  Through- 
out the  code  the  sense  of  responsibility  and  justice  is 
made  very  prominent.  The  general  character  of  the 
code  makes  good  the  king's  claim  that  he  desired  to  be 
"  like  a  father  to  his  subjects." 

The  Assyrian  Monarchy.  — As  stated  in  the  tenth  chap- 
ter  of  Genesis,  Assyria  was  first  colonized  by  emigrants 
from  Babylon.  When  the  migration  took  place,  it  is  im- 
possible to  say,  but  the  city  of  Nineveh  was  already 
in  existence  3000  B.C.  The  relations  existing  between 
Assyria  and  the  mother-country  were  always  intimate. 
Their  language  and  culture  were  substantially  the  same ; 
and  for  the  greater  part  of  their  history,  they  were  polit- 
ically united.  At  first  Assyria  was  naturally  a  depend- 
ency ;  but  it  gradually  grew  in  population  and  political 


30  AN   INTRODUCTION    TO   BIBLE  STUDY 

power,  and  about  1290  B.C.  its  king,  Tukulti-Ninib  I.,  in- 
vaded Chaldea,  captured  Babylon,  and  reduced  that  early 
and  powerful  monarchy  to  a  tributary  relation. 

The  capitals  of  Assyria  were  at  different  times  Asshur, 
Calah,  and  Nineveh,  all  of  which  were  adorned  with  mag- 
nificent temples  and  palaces.  In  the  Old  Testament 
Nineveh  is  described  as  "  an  exceeding  great  city  of  three 
days'  journey."  1  We  have  a  tolerably  complete  list  of 
Assyrian  kings  from  about  1800  B.C.  to  the  fall  of  the 
empire  in  606  B.C.,  and  ample  means  to  recognize  the 
high  state  of  civilization  to  which  the  empire  attained. 

Tiglathpilezer  I.  (1120  B.C.).  —  One  of  the  most  vigor- 
ous of  Assyrian  monarchs  was  Tiglathpilezer  I.,  who 
reigned  about  1 1 20  B.C.  He  extended  his  empire  abroad, 
and  as  a  wise  ruler  developed  its  strength  at  home.  He 
carried  on  many  campaigns  of  conquest.  In  one  great 
battle  on  the  confines  of  Asia  Minor  he  is  said  to  have 
defeated  twenty-five  kings. 

On  a  prism  found  at  Calah  Tiglathpilezer  I.  proudly  enu- 
merates his  conquests.  "  In  all,"  he  says,  "  forty-two  coun- 
tries and  their  kings  from  the  Lower  Zab  and  the  border 
of  the  distant  mountains  to  beyond  the  Euphrates  and  to 
the  land  of  the  Hittites  and  the  Upper  Sea  of  the  setting 
sun  [Black  Sea],  from  the  beginning  of  my  sovereignty 
until  my  fifth  year  my  hand  has  conquered."  It  is  thus 
seen  that  he  fixed  the  wide  limits  of  the  Assyrian  empire 
about  the  time  the  judges  were  ruling  in  Israel. 

Later  History.  —  From  the  ninth  century  before 
our  era  the  western  campaigns  of  Assyrian  conquerors, 
who  came  in  contact  with  Israel  and  Judah,  are  frequently 
mentioned  in  the  second  book  of  Kings.  Asshurna- 
zirpal  III.  (885-867  B.C.),  who  carried  his  victorious  arms 

i  Jonah  3 :  3. 


BACKGROUND   OF  HEBREW   HISTORY  31 

in  all  directions,  conquered  Tyre  and  Sidon  in  Phoenicia, 
and  probably  overran  Palestine.  He  was  vindictive 
and  cruel ;  and  in  describing  the  capture  of  Bit-Uru,  he 
affords  us  a  glimpse  of  the  barbarities  frequently  practised 
in  war  in  those  distant  ages.  "  My  warriors,"  he  says, 
"  fell  upon  the  city  like  vultures.  I  took  the  citadel,  put 
eight  hundred  men  to  the  sword,  and  cut  off  their  heads. 
I  made  a  mound  with  their  corpses  before  the  city  gate  ; 
the  prisoners  were  beheaded,  and  I  put  seven  hundred  of 
them  to  the  cross.  The  city  was  pillaged  and  destroyed ; 
I  transformed  it  into  a  heap  of  ruins." 

Conquest  of  Israel.  —  His  successor,  Shalmaneser  II. 
(858-824  B.C.),  compelled  Jehu,  King  of  Israel,  to  pay  trib- 
ute. On  a  black  obelisk  containing  the  story  of  Shal- 
maneser's  wars,  the  payment  of  this  tribute  is  depicted  in 
an  interesting  bas-relief.  Tiglathpilezer  III.  (745-727  B.C.) 
received  tribute  from  Menahem,  King  of  Israel,  and 
later  from  Ahaz,  King  of  Judah,  whom  he  supported 
against  a  hostile  alliance  of  northern  Syria.  A  few  years 
later  Hoshea,  King  of  Israel,  who  had  formed  an  alliance 
with  Shabak  of  Egypt,  refused  further  tribute  to  Assyria. 
Accordingly  his  territory  was  invaded  by  a  formidable 
army.  After  a  siege  of  three  years  Samaria  was  captured 
by  Sargon  II.  (722-705  B.C.),  who,  according  to  a  com- 
mon custom,  "  carried  Israel  away  into  Assyria,  and  placed 
them  in  Halah  and  in  Habor,  on  the  river  Gozan,  and  in 
the  cities  of  the  Medes."  1  The  captives  were  replaced  in 
the  land  of  Israel  by  settlers  from  the  eastern  part  of  the 
Assyrian  empire. 

Sennacherib  (705-681  B.C.).  —  The  empire  of  Assyria 
was  now  at  the  zenith  of  its  power.  Sennacherib,  the  son 
of  Sargon  II.,  was  a  great  builder  and  great  warrior.  His 

1  2  Kings  17:. 6. 


32  AN   INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

palace  at  Nineveh  is,  perhaps,  the  most  magnificent  of 
Assyrian  ruins.  He  subdued  Babylon,  carried  on  a  tri- 
umphant campaign  in  Phoenicia  and  Syria,  and  was  pre- 
vented from  overcoming  Hezekiah,  whom  he  "  had  shut 
up  like  a  caged  bird  within  Jerusalem,"  only  by  a  sudden 
pestilence  that  swept  away  185,000  of  his  army.1 

But,  if  we  may  trust  Sennacherib's  own  account,  his  ex- 
pedition against  Judah  was  by  no  means  so  disastrous  as 
might  be  inferred  from  the  Hebrew  chronicle.  It  will  be 
noted  that  he  omits  all  mention  of  the  disaster  at  Jerusa- 
lem. "  I  then  besieged  Hezekiah  of  Judah,"  he  says, 
"  who  had  not  submitted  to  my  yoke,  and  I  captured 
forty-six  of  his  strong  cities  and  fortresses  and  innumer- 
able small  cities  which  were  round  about  them,  with  the 
battering  of  rams  and  the  assault  of  engines,  and  the  at- 
tack of  foot-soldiers,  and  by  mines  and  breaches  made  in 
the  walls.  I  brought  out  therefrom  200,150  people." 

Fall  of  Assyria  (606  B.C.).  —  The  end,  however,  was  not 
long  delayed.  Cruelty,  pride,  luxury  —  these  were  the 
vices  of  that  warlike  people  which  prepared  the  way  for 
their  overthrow.  In  alliance  with  Nabopolassar,  King  of 
Babylon,  the  Scythians  and  Medes  invaded  Assyria  and 
laid  siege  to  Nineveh.  When  hard  pressed  and  hopeless, 
the  Assyrian  king,  Sin-shar-ishkum,  set  fire  to  his  palace 
and  perished  in  the  flames.  The  city  fell  606  B.C. 
From  this  disaster  the  empire  of  Assyria  never  recovered ; 
and  henceforth  that  great  power,  which  had  dominated 
western  Asia  for  centuries,  was  lost  in  the  movements  of 
still  mightier  nations. 

In  this  destruction  was  fulfilled  the  remarkable  predic- 
tion of  the  Hebrew  prophet  Zephaniah  a  few  years  be- 
fore. "The  Lord,"  he  said,  "  will  stretch  out  His  hand 

1  2  Kings  19  :  35,  36. 


BACKGROUND   OF  HEBREW  HISTORY  33 

against  the  north,  and  destroy  Assyria;  and  will  make 
Nineveh  a  desolation,  and  dry  like  a  wilderness.  And 
flocks  shall  lie  down  in  the  midst  of  her,  all  the  beasts  of 
the  nations ;  both  the  cormorant  and  the  bittern  shall 
lodge  in  the  upper  lintels  of  it ;  their  voice  shall  sing  in 
the  windows  ;  desolation  shall  be  in  the  thresholds ;  for 
He  shall  uncover  the  cedar  work.  This  is  the  rejoicing 
city  that  dwelt  carelessly,  that  said  in  her  heart,  I  am, 
and  there  is  none  beside  me ;  how  is  she  become  a  desola- 
tion, a  place  for  beasts  to  lie  down  in !  every  one  that 
passeth  by  her  shall  hiss,  and  wag  his  hand."  1 

Renaissance  of  Babylon.  —  With  the  destruction  of  Nine- 
veh and  the  overthrow  of  the  Assyrian  empire,  Babylon  once 
more  became  the  dominant  power  of  the  Tigris-Euphrates 
plain.  Nabopolassar,  who  had  taken  part  in  the  campaign 
against  Nineveh,  was  succeeded  by  Nebuchadnezzar  (605- 
562  B.C.),  whose  long  reign  was  the  most  splendid  period  of 
the  new  but  short-lived  monarchy.  A  picture  of  his  grandeur 
is  given  in  the  opening  chapters  of  the  book  of  Daniel. 

Nebuchadnezzar  made  numerous  military  campaigns,  in 
one  of  which  he  subdued  the  whole  of  Syria.  Not  long 
afterwards  Zedekiah,  King  of  Judah,  backed  by  an  alli- 
ance with  Egypt,  rebelled.  Jerusalem  was  captured  by 
the  Babylonians  587  B.C.,  and  all  the  people,  except  such 
laborers  as  were  absolutely  necessary  for  the  cultivation 
of  the  soil,  were  deported  to  Babylon.  A  detailed  account 
of  the  event  is  given  in  the  last  chapter  of  2  Kings ;  and 
in  the  13/th  Psalm  there  is  a  pathetic  picture  of  the  He- 
brew captives  in  their  foreign  home  :  — 

"  By  the  rivers  of  Babylon 
There  we  sat  down,  yea,  we  wept, 
When  we  remembered  Zion." 

i  Zeph.  2  :  13  -15. 


34  A N  INTRODUCTION   TO   BIBLE  STUDY 

At  this  time  Babylon,  with  its  towering,  many-colored 
temples,  its  sculptured  palaces,  its  verdant  hanging  gar- 
dens, and  its  lofty  castellated  walls,  was  the  most  splendid 
city  of  the  world. 

Fall  of  Babylon  (538  B.C.). —The  successors  of  Nebu- 
chadnezzar did  not  partake  of  his  greatness.  Of  Amil- 
Marduk,  known  in  the  Old  Testament  as  Evil-Merodach, 
but  few  records  have  descended  to  us.  A  pleasing 
glimpse  of  him  is  given  in  the  closing  verses  of  the  second 
book  of  Kings,  where  his  humane  treatment  of  Jehoiachim, 
King  of  Judah,  is  particularly  mentioned. 

The  last  king  of  Babylon  was  Nabonidus  (555-538  B.C.), 
who  was  distinguished  for  his  interest  in  the  archaeology 
of  his  country.  Unfortunately  his  interest  in  its  early  rec- 
ords led  him  to  neglect  its  welfare  during  his  own  reign. 
It  is  particularly  charged  that  he  let  the  fortifications  of 
Babylon  fall  into  ruin,  and  that  he  neglected  the  worship 
of  Marduk.  A  deep  dissatisfaction  laid  hold  of  the  peo- 
ple. As  a  result,  when  Cyrus,  King  of  the  Persians,  in- 
vaded the  country,  he  was  received  into  Babylon  without 
a  struggle.  This  event,  which  occurred  538  B.C.,  reduced 
Babylonia  to  a  province  of  the  Persian  empire. 

Belshazzar,  whose  impious  feast  is  the  subject  of  the 
fifth  chapter  of  Daniel,  appears  from  several  inscriptions 
and  tablets  to  have  been  the  son  of  Nabonidus,  the  last 
king  of  Babylon.  As  prince  regent  or  as  heir  to  the 
throne,  he  may  have  been  properly  called  by  the  author  of 
Daniel  "  King  of  the  Chaldeans."  The  Darius  mentioned 
as  the  victor  and  governor  of  Babylon  was  probably  a 
general  or  viceroy  of  Cyrus. 

Civilization.  — Though  three  monarchies,  as  we  have 
seen,  successively  occupied  the  Mesopotamian  region, 
there  was  but  one  civilization.  The  Babylonians  and  As- 


BACKGROUND   OF  HEBREW  HISTORY  35 

Syrians  were  of  Semitic  origin.  The  Semitic  peoples  are 
highly  endowed;  and  whether  Babylonian,  Hebrew,  or 
Arab,  they  are  characterized  by  a  glowing  imagination, 
quick  invention,  and  restless  impatience  of  control. 
Whether  in  discourse  or  in  architecture,  they  conceive 
beautiful  forms.  The  civilization  of  Babylonia  and  As- 
syria, at  which  we  marvel  to-day,  was  a  product  of  Semitic 
genius. 

The  form  of  government,  as  in  all  Oriental  countries,  was 
an  absolute  monarchy.  The  will  of  the  sovereign  was  law. 
As  despotism  depends  ultimately  on  physical  force,  the 
monarchies  of  Mesopotamia  rested  on  a  military  basis. 
While  many  of  the  sovereigns  were  humane  and  devoted 
to  the  welfare  of  their  realm,  the  majority,  perhaps,  were 
chiefly  concerned  with  their  own  pleasure  and  glory. 
They  were  often  ambitious,  tyrannical,  and  cruel. 

Science.  —  Babylonia  may  be  regarded  as  the  original 
home  of  astronomy,  which  was  associated  with  the  rites  of 
religion  and  the  superstitions  of  astrology.  Observatories, 
which  were  built  in  connection  with  the  temples,  existed 
in  all  the  principal  cities.  The  signs  of  the  zodiac  were 
marked  out,  maps  of  the  stars  were  made,  and  eclipses 
were  recorded.  The  year  was  divided  into  twelve  lunar 
months.  The  week  consisted  of  seven  days,  and  included 
a  day  of  rest,  like  the  Hebrew  Sabbath,  in  which  ordinary 
occupations  were  suspended.  The  mathematical  sciences 
reached  an  astonishing  development.  A  tablet  found 
at  Larsa  contains  a  table  of  squares  and  cubes  from  one 
to  sixty  ;  and  the  plot  of  an  estate  lying  outside  the  walls 
of  Babylon  shows  that  the  art  of  surveying  was  understood. 

Architecture.  —  The  architecture  of  Babylonia  and  As- 
syria was  determined  in  large  measure  by  the  character  of 
the  building  materials  at  hand.  As  there  were  no  stone 


36  4 AT  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

quarries  in  the  wide  alluvial  plains,  the  people  were  forced 
to  the  use  of  bricks,  which  were  either  dried  in  the  sun  or 
burned  in  kilns. 

The  temples  and  palaces  were  built  on  immense  plat- 
forms from  twenty  to  forty  feet  high.  The  palaces,  which 
often  covered  several  acres  of  ground,  consisted  of  narrow 
halls  and  large  open  courts.  But  little  use  was  made  of 
the  arch  and  column.  At  the  principal  entrances  to 
the  halls  stood  colossal  winged  bulls  or  lions  with  human 
heads,  —  figures  that  seem  to  have  symbolized  the 
swiftness,  strength,  and  intelligence  of  the  national 
character. 

The  interior  of  the  halls  was  decorated  with  elaborate 
panels  from  nine  to  twelve  feet  high,  which  were  covered 
with  inscriptions  and  bas-relief  sculptures  representing 
martial  events,  hunting  scenes,  or  mythological  characters. 
The  space  above  this  sculptured  wainscoting,  together  with 
the  entire  ceiling,  was  decorated  with  paintings,  gildings, 
and  richly  carved  mouldings,  the  whole  resulting  in  impres- 
sive splendor. 

Sculpture.  —  The  Babylonians  and  Assyrians  excelled 
in  sculpture.  Whether  carving  seals  or  gigantic  symbolic 
figures,  they  exhibited  an  admirable  skill.  We  find  at  once 
freedom  of  conception  and  carefulness  of  execution.  The 
dignity,  strength,  and  conscious  power  of  their  human- 
headed  bulls  witness  to  high  artistic  gifts.  The  Babylo- 
nian sculptor  was  not  hampered,  as  was  the  Egyptian  artist, 
by  a  rigid  conventionalism.  He  understood  anatomy  and 
studied  the  forms  of  nature  ;  and  as- a  result,  there  is  often 
a  surprising  realism  in  his  portrayal  of  animals  and  the 
human  form.  Through  his  fidelity  to  life  we  are  made 
acquainted  with  the  physiognomy,  the  dress,  and  the 
customs  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria  thousands  of  years  ago. 


BACKGROUND   OF  HEBREW  HISTORY  37 

Manufacture.  —  The  Babylonians  excelled  likewise  in 
the  manufacture  of  textile  fabrics  of  linen,  wool,  and  cotton. 
They  were  renowned  for  the  superior  fineness  and  brilliant 
colors  of  their  garments.  It  is  a  significant  fact  that  in 
the  conquest  of  Canaan  under  Joshua  in  the  fifteenth 
century  before  Christ,  Achan  fell  into  a  mortal  trespass 
through  the  alluring  beauty  of  "  a  goodly  Babylonish  gar- 
ment." l  Delicate  perfumes,  rich  carpets,  and  precious 
stones  of  various  kinds  ministered  to  the  luxury  of  domestic 
and  social  life  at  home,  and  furnished  the  materials  of 
commerce,  which  was  carried  on,  by  land  and  sea,  with  the 
rest  of  the  world.  The  description  of  Belshazzar's  feast 
in  the  fifth  chapter  of  Daniel  gives  us  a  glimpse  of  the 
voluptuous  customs  of  Babylon  at  the  period  of  its  fall. 

Religion.  —  The  religion  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria  was 
a  complicated  polytheism.  At  the  head  of  the  celestial 
hierarchy  was  a  triad  of  major  deities  called  Ilu  or  Ana, 
Bel  or  Baal,  and  Anu.  There  was  also  a  second  triad 
associated  with  the  visible  world;  namely,  Shamash,  god 
of  the  sun,  Sin,  god  of  the  moon,  and  Bin,  Ramman,  or 
Abad,  god  of  the  higher  regions  of  the  atmosphere.  A 
series  of  divinities  presided  over  the  planets :  Adar  over 
Saturn,  Marduk  over  Jupiter,  Nergal  over  Mars,  Ishtar 
over  Venus,  and  Nabu  over  Mercury.  Each  city  had  its 
tutelary  deity,  and  vied  with  its  neighbors  in  the  erection 
of  imposing  temples.  Bel  was  worshipped  at  Nippur, 
Shamash  in  Larsa,  and  Marduk  in  Babylon. 

Though  the  religious  rites  of  the  Babylonians  and  As- 
syrians contained  licentious  and  degrading  elements,  the 
people  were  not  lacking  in  piety.  In  addition  to  the  solemn 
pomp  of  great  annual  festivals,  the  priests  offered  in  the 
temples  daily  sacrifices,  which  usually  consisted  of  a  ram 

1  Josh.  7:  21. 


38  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

or  kid.  The  people  recognized  the  operation  of  a  divine 
providence  in  human  life ;  and  while  they  practised  magi- 
cal arts  and  believed  in  the  superstitions  of  astrology,  they 
often  showed  in  their  hymns  and  prayers  a  marked  degree 
of  religious  fervor.  Some  of  their  hymns,  in  sentiment  and 
expression,  are  comparable  to  the  Psalms. 

Tradition  of  Creation.  —  Among  the  literary  remains  of 
Babylonia  is  a  remarkable  tradition  of  creation,  which  has 
points  of  striking  resemblance  with  the  narrative  of  Genesis. 
It  is  preserved  in  a  series  of  tablets,  most  of  which  have 
been  translated.  The  record  of  the  first  tablet  describes 
a  chaotic  condition  of  the  world.  "  There  was  a  time,"  so 
reads  the  tablet,  "  when  what  is  overhead  was  not  called 
heaven,  and  what  is  beneath  was  not  yet  called  earth." 
Afterwards,  as  other  tablets  record,  the  gods  "  created  the 
living  creatures,  the  cattle  of  the  field,  the  wild  beasts  of 
the  field,  and  creeping  things." 

Along  with  the  points  of  resemblance  between  the  Baby- 
lonian and  the  Hebrew  account  of  creation,  there  is  one 
fundamental  difference.  While  the  Babylonian  tradition 
is  frankly  polytheistic,  the  biblical  narrative  rises  to  a 
monotheistic  conception  of  God.  Whether  both  narratives 
sprang  from  a  common  source,  or  whether  the  record  in 
Genesis  is  drawn  from  the  Babylonian  tradition,  the  Scrip- 
tural account  bears  the  impress  of  an  insight  or  inspiration 
that  lifts  it  far  above  the  story  of  the  cuneiform  tablets.1 

The  Deluge.  — The  Babylonian  account  of  the  deluge  is 
a  still  more  notable  tradition.  It  is  contained  in  the 

1 "  The  early  traditions  of  the  Semitic  race  were  yoked  to  the  service  of  the 
spiritual  religion  of  Israel.  The  essential  teaching  of  Jehovah  respecting  the 
Divine  nature,  the  universe,  and  man's  nature,  was  conveyed  in  the  outline  of  a 
cosmogony,  which,  if  it  had  its  roots  in  the  early  Assyrian  traditions,  was  finally 
expressed  in  all  the  dignified  simplicity  of  Hebrew  monotheism." —  H.  E.  RYLE, 
"  Early  Narratives  of  Genesis,"  p.  23. 


BACKGROUND   OF  HEBREW  HISTORY  39 

Babylonian  epic  of  Gilgamish,  which  was  first  dis- 
covered and  translated  by  George  Smith,  of  the  British 
Museum,  in  1872.  It  has  points  of  remarkable  agreement 
with  the  story  of  the  deluge  in  Genesis.  Sit-Napishtim, 
the  Babylonian  Noah,  built  a  ship ;  then,  in  anticipation  of 
the  flood  foretold  by  the  gods,  he  says  :  "  With  everything 
that  I  had  of  the  seed  of  life  I  filled  it.  I  embarked  with 
my  whole  family,  my  servants,  the  cattle  of  the  field,  the 
wild  beasts  of  the  field,  and  the  workmen,  all  of  them  I 
embarked." 

Then  followed  a  violent  storm  of  rain  so  that  "  the  gods 
crouched  down  like  dogs."  "  Six  days  and  seven  nights," 
says  the  narrator,  "the  storm  raged,  the  flood,  and  tem- 
pest ...  I  looked  out  over  the  sea,  crying  aloud,  but  all 
mankind  had  turned  to  earth  again.  .  .  .  The  seventh  day 
at  dawn  I  sent  out  a  dove ;  she  left,  she  flew  hither  and 
thither,  there  being  no  lighting  place  she  returned.  .  .  . 
Then  I  sent  out  a  raven  and  let  her  go.  The  raven  flew 
off  and  saw  the  diminishing  waters  ;  she  came  near  and 
croaked,  but  did  not  return."  These  incidents  will  be 
recognized  as  remarkably  like  the  narrative  in  Genesis. 
But  here,  again,  the  biblical  story  is  exalted  by  its  deep 
moral  purpose  and  its  monotheistic  idea  of  God.1 

2.    EGYPT 

Introductory.  —  The  northeastern  part  of  Africa,  known 
as  Egypt,  occupies  a  very  prominent  place  in  the  ancient 
world.  Its  people,  who  probably  migrated  from  Asia  in 

1  "  The  narrative  of  the  flood  records  to  us  some  terrible  but  local  cataclysm 
which  overtook  the  original  seat  of  the  Semitic  race.  The  Hebrew  and  Assyro- 
Babylonian  accounts  are  two  parallel  versions  of  it,  transmitted,  by  the  two  strangely 
different  branches  of  that  stock,  in  literature  so  varied  as  the  clay  tablets  of  Nineveh 
and  the  Scriptures  of  the  Jews."  — H.  E.  RYLE,  "Early  Narratives  of  Genesis," 
p.  113. 


40  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

prehistoric  times,  belonged,  as  the  sculptures  of  ancient 
temples  and  tombs  clearly  show,  to  the  white  race.  For 
a  long  time  the  civilization  of  Egypt  was  thought  to  be  the 
oldest  in  the  world  ;  but,  as  we  have  already  learned,  that 
of  the  Mesopotamian  region  probably  antedated  it  by  some 
centuries.  A  conservative  estimate  places  the  beginning 
of  the  first  dynasty  at  4400  B.C.,  —  more  than  2000  years 
before  Abraham  left  Ur  of  the  Chaldees  to  become  founder 
of  the  Hebrew  people. 

The  Nile. —  As  Herodotus  long  ago  observed,  Egypt  is  the 
gift  of  the  Nile.  But  for  this  mighty  river,  that  country, 
famous  in  ancient  as  in  modern  times  for  its  fertility,  would 
form  a  part  of  the  great  Sahara  Desert.  The  Nile,  whose 
sources  remained  for  ages  a  mystery,  takes  its  rise  in 
equatorial  Africa.  The  heavy  rainfall  of  that  tropical 
region  and  the  melting  of  the  mountain  snows  of  Abyssinia, 
cause  a  yearly  overflow,  which  makes  portions  of  .the 
valley  like  a  sea.  The  numerous  towns  and  cities,  as  the 
Greek  historian  remarked,  rise  above  the  waters  like 
beautiful  islands.  This  annual  inundation,  which  begins 
about  the  first  of  July,  covers  the  river  plain  with  a  dark 
muddy  sediment,  which  renews  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 

Physical  Features.  —  Egypt  extends  from  the  first  cata- 
ract of  the  Nile  to  the  Mediterranean  Sea  —  a  distance  of 
about  570  miles.  The  fertile  portion  of  the  valley  has  a 
width  varying  from  five  to  twenty  miles.  As  the  river 
approaches  the  sea,  it  divides  into  two  main  branches 
which  form  a  wide  triangular  plain  known  as  the  Delta. 
On  the  west  the  Nile  valley  is,  in -a  measure,  protected 
against  the  encroachments  of  the  desert  by  a  range  of 
hills ;  on  the  east  it  is  bounded  by  a  range  of  mountains, 
which  separate  it  from  the  sea.  The  fertile  portion  of 
this  valley,  embracing  about  12,000  square  miles,  became 


BACKGROUND   OF  HEBREW  HISTORY  41 

in  very  ancient  times  the  centre  of  a  dense  population, 
which,  largely  cut  off  from  contact  with  other  nations, 
developed  a  peculiar  literature,  religion,  and  art. 

Influence  of  the  River.  —  The  Nile  may  be  regarded  as 
the  controlling  factor  in  Egyptian  civilization.  It  not 
only  created  the  fertile  valley,  but  it  also  determined,  in 
large  measure,  the  pursuits  and  intellectual  development  of 
the  people.  The  fertility  of  the  soil,  annually  enriched  by 
the  overflow  of  the  river,  invited  to  agriculture,  in  which 
wheat,  millet,  barley,  and  rice  rewarded  the  husbandman  a 
hundred  fold  for  his  industry.  The  need  of  irrigation  de- 
veloped a  mechanical  ingenuity ;  and  the  repeated  efface- 
ments  of  landmarks  made  mensuration  a  necessity. 

The  growing  population  led  to  the  building  of  cities  and 
the  enactment  of  laws  for  the  maintenance  of  social  order. 
Even  the  deep  religious  sense  of  the  people,  which  in  the 
course  of  time  created  an  all-powerful  priesthood,  may  be 
traced,  in  some  measure  at  least,  to  the  beneficence  of  the 
river.  In  its  annual  overflow,  without  which  the  country 
was  in  danger  of  desolation  by  famine,  the  people  learned 
their  dependence  upon  a  higher  power  than  their  own. 

Different  Classes.  —  The  Egyptians  were  divided  into 
several  well-defined  classes  or  castes.  The  priests,  who 
constituted  the  highest  caste,  possessed  immense  wealth  and 
influence.  They  were  supported  by  the  state,  and  held 
one-third  of  the  land  free  of  tax.  They  were  the  chief 
representatives  of  learning,  and  the  intellectual  leaders  of 
the  people.  The  king  was  regarded  as  a  high  priest, 
whose  absolute  power  rested  on  his  character  as  represen- 
tative of  the  gods.  The  military  class  ranked  next  to  the 
priests.  The  rest  of  the  population  was  divided  into  three 
general  classes,  of  which  the  first  included  the  farmers 
and  boatmen  ;  the  second,  the  mechanics  and  tradesmen ; 


42  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

and  the  third,  the  herdsmen,  fishermen,  and  common 
laborers. 

Old  Memphis  Empire.  —  The  history  of  Egypt  before  the 
conquest  of  Alexander  the  Great,  332  B.C.,  includes  three 
empires, — the  old  Memphis  empire  (4700-2700  B.C.),  the 
old  Theban  or  Middle  empire  (2700-1635  B.C.),  and  the 
new  Theban  empire (1635-332  B.C.).  Ten  dynasties  belong 
to  the  long  period  of  the  old  Memphitic  empire.  Many  of 
the  sovereigns  of  this  remote  empire  have  left  monuments 
of  various  kinds,  which  throw  much  light  on  the  state  of 
society.  For  example,  Zeser  (3866  B.C.),  a  king  of  the 
third  dynasty,  built  the  step  pyramid  of  Saqqarah,  of  which 
it  has  been  said  that  "  it  is  certainly  the  oldest  of  all  the 
large  buildings  which  have  successfully  resisted  the  action 
of  wind  and  weather,  and  destruction  by  the  hand  of  man." 
The  great  Sphinx  of  Gizeh,  which  was  sculptured  at  this 
period,  exhibits  the  high  degree  of  intelligence  and  artistic 
skill  to  which  the  Egyptians  had  attained.  Khufu,  or 
Cheops  (3733  B.C.),  built  the  great  pyramid  that  bears  his 
name. 

The  Middle  Empire.  —The  Middle  or  old  Theban  empire, 
which  includes  the  dynasties  from  the  eleventh  to  the  seven- 
teenth, lasted  about  a  thousand  years(27OO-i635  B.C.).  The 
capital  was  transferred  from  Memphis  to  Thebes  in  upper 
Egypt.  The  successive  sovereigns  of  this  empire  have 
left  their  names  in  notable  monuments,  literary  productions, 
or  public  works.  Amenemhat  I.  (2466  B.C.)  displayed 
great  vigor  as  a  ruler,  and  made  conquests  in  Asiatic  terri- 
tory. In  describing  his  beneficent  reign  he  says,  "  I  caused 
the  mourner  to  mourn  no  longer,  and  his  lamentation  was 
no  longer  heard." 

Usertsen  I.  (2446  B.C.)  extended  his  authority  into  the 
Sinaitic  peninsula,  and  built  the  temple  of  Karnak,  which 


BACKGROUND   OF  HEBREW  HISTORY  43 

was  enlarged  and  enriched  by  subsequent  sovereigns. 
Usertsen  III.  (2340  B.C.)  conquered  Ethiopia,  and  fixed  the 
southern  boundary  of  Egypt  at  the  second  cataract,  where 
he  built  two  strong  fortresses.  He  was  succeeded  by 
Amenemhat  III.  (2305  B.C.),  who  constructed  Lake  Moeris 
as  a  storage  reservoir  for  the  waters  of  the  Nile,  and  built 
the  celebrated  Labyrinth  palace,  which  Herodotus  says 
surpassed  all  the  architectural  works  of  Greece. 

The  Hyksos  or  Shepherd  Kings.  —  The  Hyksos  or  Shep- 
herd Kings  were  an  Asiatic  people  who  during  the  thir- 
teenth dynasty,  about  2100  B.C.,  established  themselves  in 
Egypt.  They  probably  came  from  Syria  or  Arabia,  and 
are  characterized  by  Manetho  as  "  men  of  ignoble  birth 
out  of  the  eastern  parts."  Their  conquest,  according  to 
the  Egyptian  historian,  was  characterized  by  ruthless  de- 
struction and  cruelty.  "  They  burnt  down  our  cities," 
Manetho  says  in  a  passage  preserved  by  Josephus,  "  and 
demolished  the  temples  of  the  gods,  and  used  all  the  in- 
habitants after  a  most  barbarous  manner."  The  royal 
residence  of  the  conquerors  was  fixed  at  Pelusium,  or  Avaris, 
a  border  stronghold,  and  at  Tanis,  a  populous  city  of  the 
eastern  Delta.  The  dominion  of  the  Hyksos  was  confined 
chiefly  to  lower  Egypt ;  only  for  a  brief  period  did  their 
sovereignty  extend  over  upper  Egypt. 

Whatever  may  have  been  the  life  of  the  Hyksos  prior  to 
their  invasion  of  Egypt,  it  is  certain  that  they  adopted  the 
higher  civilization  of  the  conquered  territory.  They 
assumed  the  titles  of  Egyptian  sovereigns,  and  erected 
temples  to  the  Egyptian  gods.  The  monuments  that  have 
descended  to  us  from  their  time  prove  that  they  fully 
adopted  the  culture,  art,  and  religion  of  Egypt.  The 
length  of  the  Hyksos  domination  is  estimated  by  Manetho 
at  5 1 1  years. 


44  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

Relation  to  the  Hebrews.  —  The  presence  of  these 
Arabian  or  Syrian  conquerors  in  Egypt  throws  an  interest- 
ing light  on  early  Hebrew  history.  When  Abraham  was 
driven  from  Canaan  by  a  famine,  he  was  kindly  dealt  with 
by  the  Egyptian  king,1  who  recognized  in  him,  not  an  alien, 
but  a  compatriot.  This  kindly  attitude  toward  Syrian 
immigrants  explains  the  rapid  advancement  of  Joseph  in 
the  house  of  Potiphar,  captain  of  the  king's  guard,  and  his 
subsequent  advancement,  as  related  in  the  closing  chapters 
of  Genesis,  to  the  office  of  prime  minister  of  the  realm. 
It  explains,  likewise,  the  courtesy  with  which  Pharaoh  re- 
ceived Jacob's  numerous  household,  and  the  readiness 
with  which  he  assigned  them  a  home  in  the  fertile  dis- 
trict of  Goshen.  The  native  Egyptians,  to  whose  caste 
prejudice  "every  shepherd  is  an  abomination,"2  would 
have  shown  themselves  intolerant  to  the  Hebrew 
immigrants. 

New  Theban  Empire  (1635-332  B.C.).  —  At  length  the 
Hyksos  kings  were  driven  from  their  stronghold  at  Pelusium 
by  a  vigorous  king  of  upper  Egypt,  Aahmes  I.  (1635  B.C.), 
and  the  new  Theban  empire  was  established.  Egypt 
speedily  rose  to  the  rank  of  a  world  power.  Tehutimes  I. 
(1590  B.C.),  for  example,  pushed  his  conquests  in  Asia  as 
far  as  the  Euphrates  ;  and  Tehutimes  III.  (1530  B.C.)  made 
no  fewer  than  fifteen  campaigns  into  Syria. 

The  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  dynasties,  extending  from 
1635  to  1235  B.C.,  was  a  period  of  great  national  develop- 
ment. Art,  literature,  and  commerce  flourished  in  a  high 
degree.  Among  the  memorable  achievements  of  this 
period  may  be  mentioned  the  temple  of  Luxor,  the  famous 
avenue  of  the  sphinxes  between  Karnak  and  Luxor,  and 
the  palace  and  tomb  of  Tel-el-Amarna.  An  active  corre- 

1  Gen.  12 : 10.  2  Gen.  46 : 34. 


BACKGROUND   OF  HEBREW  HISTORY  45 

spondence  was  maintained  in  cuneiform  characters  with 
princes  in  Syria  and  Mesopotamia.  The  discovery  of  three 
hundred  cuneiform  tablets  at  Tel-el-Amarna  in  1887  has 
thrown  much  light  on  the  relations  existing  between 
Egypt  and  western  Asia. 

Ramses  II.  (1345  B.C.).  —  There  is  one  king  of  the  nine- 
teenth dynasty  who  deserves  particular  notice.  It  is 
Ramses  II.,  whose  warlike  prowess  has  earned  for  him  the 
title  of  "the  Great."  He  is  well  known  to  us  through  the 
account  contained  in  the  first  chapter  of  Exodus.  He  was 
"the  Pharaoh  of  the  oppression,"  who  regarded  it  as  a 
measure  of  wise  public  policy  to  prevent  the  multiplication 
of  an  alien  race  in  the  midst  of  Egypt.  "  Now  there  arose 
up  a  new  king  over  Egypt,"  says  the  sacred  record,  "  which 
knew  not  Joseph.  And  he  said  unto  his  people,  behold, 
the  people  of  the  children  of  Israel  are  more  and  mightier 
than  we  :  come  on,  let  us  deal  wisely  with  them  ;  lest  they 
multiply,  and  it  come  to  pass  that,  when  there  falleth  out 
any  war,  they  join  also  unto  our  enemies,  and  fight  against 
us,  and  so  get  them  up  out  of  the  land."  1 

During  his  long  reign  of  sixty-seven  years,  Ramses  II. 
busied  himself  with  building  cities  and  creating  works  of 
art.  Through  the  enforced  labors  of  the  Israelites,  he 
built  the  treasure-cities  of  Pithom  and  Ramses,  in  which  he 
stored  grain  to  provide  for  his  people  in  case  of  famine  or 
invasion.  The  city  of  Pithom  was  excavated  in  1883,  and 
the  treasure-chambers  themselves,  with  brick  partitions 
from  eight  to  ten  feet  thick,  were  discovered.  Ramses  II. 
constructed  temples,  palaces,  and  tombs,  and  erected  tall 
granite  obelisks,  one  of  which  now  adorns  the  Place  de  la 
Concorde  in  Paris.  The  war  poem  of  Pentaur,  a  produc- 
tion of  vigorous  thought  and  expression,  describes  his 

1   Ex.  i :  8-10. 


46  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

heroism  at  the  battle  of  Kadesh.  A  bust  of  this  king,  pre- 
served in  the  British  Museum,  shows  a  countenance  of 
calm  dignity,  and  resourceful  intelligence. 

Subsequent  Relations  with  Israel.  —  The  cruel  oppression 
of  the  Hebrews,  who  had  grown  to  be  a  numerous  people, 
was  not  to  go  on  indefinitely.  Under  Meneptah  II.,  who 
lacked  the  martial  genius  of  his  father,  Ramses  II.,  there 
were  uprisings  on  all  sides  against  the  despotism  of  Egypt. 
These  revolts,  which  taxed  the  energies  and  military  power 
of  the  king  to  the  utmost,  afforded  a  favorable  opportunity 
for  the  Israelites  to  escape  from  their  bondage.  The 
troubles  of  the  Egyptian  monarch  were  aggravated  by  a 
series  of  national  calamities  described  in  Exodus  as  the  ten 
plagues.  At  length,  under  the  able  leadership  of  Moses, 
the  enslaved  Hebrews  rose  in  a  body,  and  began  a  long 
and  toilsome  march  toward  the  home  of  their  ancestors  in 
Canaan.  The  Egyptian  army  that  went  in  pursuit  of  the 
fugitives  was  overwhelmed  in  the  waters  of  the  Red 
Sea. 

During  the  later  dynasties,  Egypt  frequently  came  into 
touch  with  the  Hebrews  after  their  settlement  in  "  the 
Promised  Land."  As  we  learn  in  the  third  chapter  of  I 
Kings,  "  Solomon  made  affinity  with  Pharaoh,  King  of 
Egypt,  and  took  Pharaoh's  daughter,  and  brought  her  into 
the  city  of  David,"  where  he  built  for  her  a  magnificent 
palace.  The  Egyptian  king  bestowed  upon'  his  daughter 
as  dowry  the  city  of  Gezer,  which  he  had  captured  from 
the  Canaanites. 

The  division  of  the  Hebrew  kingdom  in  930  B.C.  made 
the  people  of  Israel  an  easy  prey.  Accordingly,  as  we 
read  in  2  Chronicles,  Shishak  invaded  Canaan  925  B.C.  with 
"  twelve  hundred  chariots  and  threescore  thousand  horse- 
men." He  attacked  Jerusalem,  and  "took  away  the 


BACKGROUND   OF  HEBREW  HISTORY  47 

treasures  of  the  house  of  the  Lord,  and  the  treasures  of 
the  king's  house."  l 

Culture  and  Art  —  As  indicated  in  the  preceding  sketch, 
the  Egyptians  excelled  in  culture  and  art.  The  ancient 
Greeks  looked  upon  Egypt  as  a  school  of  wisdom.  Long 
before  the  Greeks  were  known  to  history,  the  dwellers  on 
the  Nile  had  developed  a  high  civilization.  Grecian  phi- 
losophers and  lawgivers  —  Pythagoras,  Plato,  Solon,  Lycur- 
gus  —  visited  Egypt  to  increase  their  store  of  learning.  It 
is  said  in  praise  of  Moses  that  he  "  was  learned  in  all  the 
wisdom  of  the  Egyptians."  2 

The  temples  and  tombs  of  Egypt  were  ornamented  with 
paintings  and  sculpture,  which  were  in  large  measure  con- 
ventional and  symbolic.  Though  Egyptian  artists,  as  a 
rule,  did  not  follow  nature,  we  have  what  seem  to  be  excel- 
lent likenesses  of  many  sovereigns  belonging  to  the  Middle 
empire.  The  Egyptians  excelled  in  the  mechanic  arts. 
Great  perfection  was  attained  in  spinning  and  weaving; 
glass  was  manufactured,  and  some  of  the  secrets  of  color- 
ing it  have  baffled  modern  ingenuity  ;  iron  and  the  common 
mechanical  and  agricultural  implements  made  from  it 
were  in  general  use.  Mighty  pyramids  and  majestic  tem- 
ples witness  not  only  to  lofty  artistic  conception,  but  to  a 
high  order  of  mechanical  skill.  The  temple  'of  Karnak 
has  been  pronounced  the  proudest  architectural  achieve- 
ment of  man. 

Literature.  —  The  literature  of  Egypt,  as  it  has  been 
preserved,  represents  almost  every  species  of  writing.  The 
inscriptions  contain  invaluable  historical  records.  The 
Prisse  Papyrus,  which  was  written  in  the  fifth  dynasty 
(about  3400  B.C.),  is  said  to  be  the  oldest  book  in  the 
world.  In  subject-matter  it  resembles  the  book  of  Prov- 

l  2  Chron.  12 :  9.  2  Acts  7  :  22. 


48  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

erbs.  "  If  thou  art  become  great,"  the  author,  Ptah-Hotep, 
says,  "  after  thou  hast  been  lowly,  and  if  thou  hast  heaped 
up  riches  after  poverty,  being  because  of  that  the  chiefest 
in  the  city ;  let  not  thy  heart  be  puffed  up  because  of  thy 
riches,  for  it  is  God  who  has  given  them  unto  thee.  De- 
spise not  another  who  is  as  thou  wast ;  be  towards  him  as 
towards  thy  equal." 

The  "  Book  of  the  Dead  "  is  a  work  of  religious  and 
funeral  rites.  Its  value  is  enhanced  by  illustrations.  Its 
moral  code  embraced  all  the  prohibitions  contained  in  the 
Mosaic  decalogue.  Though  parts  of  the  "  Book  of  the 
Dead  "  are  of  far  greater  antiquity,  the  papyrus  copy  in 
the  British  Museum  dates  from  the  eighteenth  dynasty 
(about  1500  B.C.). 

In  the  literature  of  Egypt  we  find  lyric  and  epic  poems, 
some  of  which  seem  quite  modern  in  their  heroic  or  tender 
sentiment.  What  seems  still  more  remarkable,  there  are 
romantic  tales,  such  as  "The  Shipwrecked  Sailor"  and 
"The  Story  of  the  Two  Brothers,"  that  have  the  merit  of 
literary  skill  and  personal  interest. 

Religion.  — The  Egyptians  were  preeminently  a  religious 
people.  Their  gods,  among  whom  may  be  mentioned  Ptah, 
Amen,  Ra,  Osiris,  Horus,  and  Isis,  were  almost  innumer- 
able. This  extraordinary  polytheism  finds  its  explanation, 
perhaps,  in  the  divided  state  of  the  country  in  prehistoric 
times,  when  every  community  or  tribe  had  its  patron  deity. 
In  later  times,  with  the  establishment  of  a  single  govern- 
ment, their  various  divinities  were  united  in  a  single  hier- 
archy, in  which  their  functions  were  often  confused  and 
contradictory. 

In  honor  of  the  various  gods  great  temples  were  reared, 
some  of  which,  resisting  the  corroding  power  of  centuries, 
still  excite  a  profound  admiration.  There  were  numerous 


BACKGROUND   OF  HEBREW  HISTORY  49 

festivals,  which  made  the  life  of  the  Egyptians,  in  large 
measure,  a  round  of  religious  ceremony.  A  strange  feature 
of  Egyptian  religion  was  its  animal  worship.  The  cat,  ibis, 
hawk,  and  beetle  were  universally  recognized  as  sacred. 
Apis  was  the  sacred  bull  worshipped  at  Memphis  as  an  in- 
carnation of  Osiris.  A  reminiscence  of  Egyptian  polythe- 
ism and  animal  worship  is  found  among  the  Hebrews  at 
Sinai,  who,  impatient  at  the  prolonged  absence  of  Moses, 
gathered  about  the  molten  calf,  and  exclaimed,  "  These  be 
thy  gods,  O  Israel,  which  brought  thee  up  out  of  the  land  of 
Egypt."  i 

RESEARCH  WORK 

See  remark,    under  this    heading,  at  the  close   of    the 
preceding  chapter. 

Hebrew  ethnological  traditions,  Gen.  10. 

Migration  of  Abraham,  Gen.  n  :  27-32  ;   12  :  1-9. 

The  war  between  Mesopotamian  and  Canaanite  kings,  Gen.  15. 

A  description  of  Nineveh,  Jonah  3. 

The  deportation  of  Israel  into  Assyria,  2  Kings  17. 

The  invasion  of  Sennacherib  and  his  disaster  at  Jerusalem,  2  Kings  18  : 

13-37; 19  :   1-36- 
The  character  and  destruction  of  Nineveh,  Nahum ;  Zeph.  2:  13-15; 

Ezek.  31  :  3-17;  Is.  10:5-19. 

A  description  of  Nebuchadnezzar's  court  and  empire,  Dan.  1-5. 
The  conquest  of  Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  2  Kings,  24  and  25. 

As  foretold  by  the  prophet,  Jer.  21  :  2-14 
The  lament  of  the  captive  Hebrews  in  Babylon,  Ps.  137. 
The  destruction  of  Babylon  as  predicted  by  the  prophets,  Is.  13  :  1-22  ; 

21  :  i-io;  47:  1-15  ;  Jer.    50:  1-46;  51  :  1-64.     As  accomplished, 

Dan.  5. 

The  story  of  creation,  Gen.  I  :  1-31 ;  2 :  1-25. 
The  story  of  the  flood,  Gen.  6,  7,  and  8. 
Abraham  in  Egypt,  Gen.  12 :  10-20. 
The  biography  of  Joseph,  Gen.  37-50. 

i  Ex.  32 :  4. 


50  AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   BIBLE  STUDY 

The  migration  of  Jacob  into  Egypt,  Gen.  46,  47. 

The  oppressive  measures  adopted  by  Ramses  II.  against  the  flourishing 

Hebrews,  Ex.  i  :  7-22. 
The  childhood  of  Moses,  Ex.  2  :  i-io. 

The  migration  of  the  enslaved  Hebrews  from  Egypt,  Ex.  3-14. 
A  beautiful  triumphal  ode,  Ex.  15  :  1-22. 
The  expedition  of  Shishak,  King  of  Egypt,  against  Jerusalem,  2  Chron. 

12  :  2-12. 
The  worship  of  the  golden  calf  at  Sinai,  Ex.  32  :  1-24. 


CHAPTER   III 

THE    PEOPLE    OF    ISRAEL 

Historical  Position. — In  many  respects  the  people  of 
Israel  were  insignificant.  They  made  no  contribution  to 
art ;  they  were  lacking  in  high  intellectual  culture ;  and 
for  the  most  part,  their  political  power  was  comparatively 
feeble.  Except  for  a  brief  period  under  David  and  Solo- 
mon, the  Hebrews  were  unable  to  resist  a  formidable 
invasion  from  Babylonia  or  Egypt.  Their  national  life 
was  developed  in  the  presence  of  a  much  older  civilization. 
In  comparison  with  the  mighty  empires  of  the  Euphrates 
and  the  Tigris,  they  counted  for  little. 

Contribution  to  Human  Progress.  —  Nevertheless  they 
occupy  a  prominent  place  in  the  history  of  the  ancient 
world.  On  the  moral  and  spiritual  side  of  life,  the  He- 
brews did  far  more  for  human  progress  than  either  the 
Babylonians  or  the  Egyptians.  In  the  midst  of  a  universal 
polytheism,  the  rites  of  which  were  often  cruel  and  im- 
pure, Israel  developed  a  spiritual  monotheism,  which 
has  since  been  generally  accepted  by  the  most  enlightened 
nations  of  the  modern  world.  The  Hebrew  prophets  and 
lawgivers  were  the  first  to  magnify  the  existence  of  one 
Supreme  Being,  who  in  the  beginning  "created  the  heaven 
and  the  earth." 

Above  all  other  peoples  of  antiquity  the  Hebrews  empha- 
sized the  necessity  of  personal  and  civic  righteousness ; 
and  in  the  fulness  of  time  they  brought  forth  the  great 
Teacher  of  our  race.  Religion,  though  with  many  back- 

51 


52  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

slidings  and  perversions,  was  the  central  and  controlling 
influence  in  Hebrew  life.  Through  the  spiritual  insight 
of  their  greatest  leaders,  and  through  their  strong  empha- 
sis^ji£_lli£_.mQraI.._elements  of  life,  the  people  of  Israel 
achieved  a  distinct  place  in  universal  history,  and  placed 
all  subsequent  ages  under  a  deep  and  permanent  obli- 
gation.1 

Land  of  Canaan.  —  The  land  of  the  Hebrews  was  a  part 
of  Syria.  From  Mt.  Hermon  on  the  north  it  extended 
southward  for  a  hundred  and  fifty  miles  to  the  Arabian 
desert.  Its  width,  stretching  from  the  Mediterranean  on 
the  west  to  the  desert  region  on  the  east,  was  about  one 
hundred  miles.  From  the  narrow  strip  of  coast  plain  rose 
a  table-land,  which  was  cut  by  numerous  well-watered 
vales  and  marked  by  the  famous  summits  of  Tabor,  Car- 
mel,  and  Gerezim.  The  country  from  north  to  south  was 
divided  by  the  deep  valley  of  the  Jordan,  beyond  which 
fertile  highlands  again  stretched  away  to  the  desert  of 
Arabia. 

In  ancient  times  this  land  of  the  Hebrews,  known  as 
Canaan,  was  exceedingly  fertile  — "  a  land  flowing  with  milk 
and  honey."2  In  Deuteronomy  it  is  characterized  as  "a 
good  land,  a  land  of  brooks  of  water,  of  fountains  and 
depths,  springing  forth  in  valleys  and  hills ;  a  land  of 
wheat  and  barley,  and  vines  and  fig  trees  and  pome- 
granates; a  land  of  olives  and  honey;  a  land  whose 
stones  are  iron,  and  out  of  whose  hills  thou  mayest  dig 
brass."3 

1  "  It  is  the  marvel  of  history  that  this  little  people,  beset  and  despised  by  all  the 
earth  for  ages,  maintains  its  solidarity  unimpaired.  Unique  among  all  the  peoples 
of  the  earth,  it  has  come  undoubtedly  to  the  present  day  from  the  most  distant 
antiquity.  Forty,  perhaps  fifty,  centuries  rest  upon  this  venerable  contemporary 
of  Egypt,  Chaldea,  and  Troy."  —  J.  K.  HOSMER,"  The  Jews,"  p.  4. 

2  Numb.  13 :  27.  3  Deut.  8  : 7. 


THE  PEOPLE  OF  ISRAEL  53 

Native  Tribes.  —  From  prehistoric  times  Canaan  was 
occupied  by  various  tribes  of  Semites,  among  whom  may  be 
mentioned  the  Philistines,  the  Jebusites,  and  Ammonites, 
the  Amorites,  and  the  Hivites.  These  tribes  were  not 
uncivilized ;  and  at  the  time  of  the  Hebrew  invasion, 
presently  to  be  noticed,  they  lived  in  cities,  carried  on 
agriculture  and  trade,  and  maintained  regal  forms  of 
government.  Situated  between  the  great  monarchies 
of  the  Euphrates  and  the  Nile,  to  which  they  were  at 
times  in  subjection,  the  Canaanites  shared  in  the 
culture,  customs,  and  superstitions  of  Babylonia  and 
Egypt. 

They  were  skilled  in  the  arts  of  war.  The  name  of  one 
of  their  cities,  Kirjath-sepher,  "the  city  of  books,"  seems 
to  indicate  the  cultivation  of  literature.  Their  chief  divin- 
ities were  Baal  and  Astarte,  which  were  worshipped  with 
licentious  rites  ;  and  the  people  resorted  to  divination  and 
augury,  consulted  "  familiar  spirits,"  and  practised  other 
superstitions  which  the  sacred  writer  stigmatizes  as  "an 
abomination  unto  the  Lord."  At  various  times  the  people 
of  Israel  were  contaminated  by  the  corrupt  teaching  and 
vile  rites  of  their  Canaanitish  neighbors. 

National  Beginnings. —  According  to  the  records  in  Gen- 
esis, which  constitute  our  principal  source  of  information, 
the  progenitor  of  the  Hebrew  people  was  Abraham  who 
migrated  some  2000  years  before  our  era,  from  "  Ur  of 
the  Chaldees "  to  Canaan.  His  descendants,  Isaac  and 
Jacob,  led  a  patriarchal  and  nomadic  life,  which  was  dis- 
tinguished alone  for  an  unshaken  faith  in  Jehovah.  Many 
interesting  traditions  of  their  early  life  in  Canaan  —  do- 
mestic tragedies  as  well  as  romantic  idyls  —  have  fortu- 
nately been  preserved  to  us.  The  wooing  of  seven  years  | 
to  gain  the  hand  of  Rachel,  the  reconciliation  of  Jacob  and  I 


54  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

Esau,  and  the  tragedy  of  Joseph  —  these  are  delightful 
pictures  of  that  distant  patriarchal  life.1 

A  famine  in  Canaan  led  to  the  removal  of  Jacob  and 
his  numeroiiS-hQusehold  into  Egypt,  where  his  son  Joseph, 
under  afHyjcsos  kin&  had  risen  to  high  dignity  and  power. 
In  the  course  of  several  centuries,  these  Hebrew  immigrants, 
who  had  settled  in  Goshen  —  a  district  in  the  northeastern 
part  of  Egypt  —  became  so  numerous  as  to  excite  fears 
at  the  Egyptian  court.  Accordingly,  as  we  have  already 
seen,  Ramses  II.,  "a  Pharaoh  who  knew  not  Joseph," 
adopted  cruel  measures  of  repression.  The  Hebrews  were 
enslaved  and  burdened  with  cruel  tasks.  At  length,  after 
a  period  of  extreme  hardship  and  suffering,  they  migrated 
in  a  body,  about(749O  B.3  according  to  the  usual  chronol- 
ogy, toward  the  "  .Promised  Land  "  of  Canaan.  Their 
number  is  given  at  "  about  600,000  that  were  men,  beside 
children."  The  Egyptian  army  that  pursued  the  fleeing 
host  met  with  irreparable  disaster  at  the  Red  Sea. 

In  the  Wilderness.  —  But  the  Hebrews  were  not  destined 
to  enter  at  once  upon  their  promised  inheritance.  They 
were  to  spend  many  years  in  the  wilderness  region  south 
of  Canaan,  where  their  religious  and  national  life  was  to 
assume  definite  shape.  The  bonds  of  racial  sympathy, 
which  naturally  drew  the  Hebrews  together  during  the 
trials  of  their  Egyptian  bondage,  were  to  be  further 
strengthened  by  the  common  dangers  and  hardships  of  the 
wilderness.  The  books  of  Exodus  and  Numbers  relate  many 
interesting  events  of  this  migratory  period,  —  events  that 

1  "  If  criticism,  with  the  help  of  archaeology,  has  failed  to  establish  the  literal 
truth  of  these  stories  as  personal  biographies,  it  has,  on  the  other  hand,  displayed 
their  utter  fidelity  to  the  characters  of  the  peoples  they  reflect,  and  to  the  facts  of 
the  world  and  the  Divine  guidance  in  which  these  peoples  developed.  The  power 
of  the  patriarchal  narratives  on  the  heart,  the  imagination,  the  faith  of  men  can 
never  die ;  it  is  immortal  with  truthfulness  to  the  realities  of  human  nature  and 
God's  education  of  mankind."  —  GEORGE  ADAM  SMITH,  "Modern  Criticism  and 
the  Preaching  of  the  Old  Testament,"  p.  109. 


THE  PEOPLE  OF  ISRAEL  55 

subsequently  embedded  themselves  in  the  history  of  the 
Hebrew  people  and  in  the  thought  of  the  Christian  church. 

The  hero  of  this  national  movement  was  Moses,  the  law- 
giver and  prophet  of  Israel.  He  is  deservedly  regarded 
as  one  of  the  great  figures  of  history.  His  work  was  two- 
fold in  its  character.  He  gave  the  multitudes  under  him 
a  complete  civil  administration.  He  not  only_drew  up_a 
code  of  laws,  which  his  Egyptian  culture  easily  enabled 
him  to  do,  but  he  also  appointed  able  and  upright  men  to 
be  rulers  and  judges  under  him.  "And  Moses  chose  able 
men  out  of  all  Israel,"  so  runs  the  record,  "and  made 
them  heads  over  the  people,  rulers  of  thousands,  rulers  of 
hundreds,  rulers  of  fifties,  and  rulers  of  tens.  And  they 
judged  the  people  at  all  seasons :  the  hard  causes  they 
brought  unto  Moses,  but  every  small  matter  they  judged 
themselves."  l 

But  more  significant  still  were  the  religious  institutions 
which,  under  divine  guidance,  he  established  for  his  people. 
A  special  covenant  was  entered  into  between  Jehovah  and 
the  people,  by  which  the  polytheistic  idolatries  of  Egypt 
were  completely  swept  away.  Monotheism  became  the 
official  faith,  as  it  had  long  been  the  traditional  belief,  of 
the  Hebrews.  A  comprehensive  moral  coder  including 
both  religious  and  social  duties,  was  promulgated.  It  is 
known  as  the  Ten  Commandments,  and  is  held  in  high 
honor  to-day.2  An  elaborate  ritual  of  worship,  suggestions 
for  which  may  have  been  borrowed  from  the  temple  cere- 

1  Ex.  18  :  25,  26. 

2  "  The  grand  distinction  of  the  Decalogue  is  that  it  deals  only  with  that  which  is 
fundamental  in  religion  and  morals.     '  Love  God  with  all  your  heart,  and  your 
neighbor  as  yourself  —  is  its  sum.     There  is  no  ritual,  but  only  the  ethical,  the 
universally  important  and  perennially  valid.     Even  the  fourth   commandment  is 
ethical  at  the  core,  a  humane  statute  securing  a  resting-time  for  labor  drudges, 
slaves,  and  even  for  the  beast  of  burden. "  — R.  S.  MOULTON,  "  The  Bible  as  Litera- 
ture," p.  39. 


56  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO   BIBLE  STUDY 

monies  of  Egypt,  was  established,  and  a  hereditary  line  of 
priests  was  ordained  to  have  charge  of  the  services  of  the 
tabernacle,  —  a  portable  sanctuary  suited  to  the  migratory 
life  of  Israel  in  the  wilderness. 

Conquest  of  Canaan.  —  After  wandering  forty  years  in  the 
wilderness,  the  Hebrews  turned  northward  and  approached 
Canaan  from  the  eastern  side  of  the  Jordan.  From  the 
summit  of  Mt.  Pisgah,  Moses,  the  strong  and  faithful 
leader  of  Israel,  caught  a  splendid  glimpse  of  the  Promised 
Land,  which  he  was  not  himself  to  enter.  After  his  death, 
at  an  advanced  age,  Joshua  became  his  successor,  and 
pushed  his  conquests  to  the  west  of  the  river  with  tireless 
energy  and  unsparing  thoroughness.  He  displayed  the 
barbarous  cruelty  that  was  only  too  common  in  the  military 
campaigns  of  that  age.  In  the  capture  of  Jericho,  for  ex- 
ample, it  is  stated  that  the  Hebrew  invaders  "  utterly  de- 
stroyed all  that  was  in  the  city,  both  man  and  woman, 
young  and  old,  and  ox,  sheep,  and  ass,  with  the  edge  of  the 
sword."  * 

The  twelfth  chapter  of  Joshua  —  the  book  that  describes 
the  conquest — gives  a  list  of  thirty-one  kings,  whom  the 
Hebrew  leader  subdued.  Every  town  and  city  in  the  land 
had  its  local  prince  or  king.  Sometimes  these  princes 
formed  extensive  alliances  against  the  invaders ;  but  the 
Hebrews,  hardened  by  their  wanderings  in  the  wilderness, 
proved  themselves  irresistible  conquerors.  After  the  com- 
pletion of  the  conquest,  which  still  left  here  and  there  con- 
siderable communities  of  the  Canaanitish  races,  the  country 
was  divided  among  the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel.  Each  tribe 
constituted  a  province  under  its  own  elders  or  rulers. 

The  Hebrews  were  distinguished  from  the  native  popula- 
tion of  Canaan  by  the  purity  and  exclusiveness  of  their 

/  ' 

1  Josh.  6:  21. 


THE  PEOPLE  OF  ISRAEL  57 

monotheistic  religion.  The  religious  element  dominated 
the  life  of  Israel.  Extraordinary  precautions  were  exer- 
cised to  prevent  idolatry.  Intermarriage  was  prohibited ; 
and  all  the  monuments  of  idolatrous  worship  were  de- 
stroyed. "Ye  shall  destroy  their  altars,"  it  is  commanded 
in  Deuteronomy,  "  and  break  down  their  images,  and  cut 
down  their  groves,  and  burn  their  graven  images  with  fire."  1 
The  first  and  supreme  duty  of  the  Israelites  is  expressed  in 
these  words :  "  Thou  shalt  love  the  Lord  thy  God  with  all 
thine  heart,  and  with  all  thy  soul,  and  with  all  thy  might."  2 

Period  of  the  Judges.  — After  the  conquest  there  followed 
a  long  period — the  usual  chronology  makes  it  some  three 
hundred  years — in  which  the  twelve  tribes  were  without 
political  organization  and  unity.  The  only  bon,d»  JiQjt  al- 
ways  a  strong  one,  was  a  common  religious  faith.3  It  was 
a  period  of  confusion,  tumult,  and  bloodshed,  for  "  in  those 
days,"  to  quote  the  book  of  Judges,  our  chief  authority, 
"  there  was  no  king  in  Israel,  but  every  man  did  that  which 
was  right  in  his  own  eyes."4  The  children  of  Israel,  for- 
getful of  the  solemn  admonitions  of  Moses  and  Joshua, 
frequently  apostatized  from  the  religion  of  Jehovah  to 
engage  in  the  alluring  worship  of  Baal  and  Ashtaroth, 
which  they  adopted  from  the  older  tribes  of  Canaan. 
In  addition  to  intertribal  conflicts  of  the  Hebrews,  there 
were  frequent  wars  with  the  native  races  of  Canaan, 
and  the  Israelites  were  often  brought  into  subjection. 

Various  Deliverers.  —  These  times  of  national  trial  and 
disaster  naturally  brought  strong,  capable  leaders  to  the 

1  Deut.  7:5.  2  Deut.  6:5. 

8  "  In  virtue  of  their  common  religion  the  Israelites  of  the  north  and  the  south 
retained  a  sense  of  essential  unity  in  spite  of  political  separation  and  repeated 
wars ;  and  it  was  felt  that  the  division  of  the  tribes  was  inconsistent  with  the  true 
destiny  of  Jehovah's  people."  — W.  R.  SMITH,  "The  Prophets  of  Israel,"  p.  48. 

4  Judges  17  :  6 


58  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY  . 

front,  who,  in  the  original  records,  are  called  Judges.1 
Several  of  them  have  become  well  known.  Ehud,  by  an 
act  of  treachery,  slew  Eglon,  the  king  of  the  Moabites, 
and  summoning  the  tribe  of  Ephraim  to  his  standard,  he 
threw  off  the  Moabite  yoke.  Deborah  and  Barak  deliv- 
ered the  northern  tribes  from  the  galling  oppression  of 
the  Canaanites  —  a  victory  that  is  celebrated  in  a  martial 
song  of  exultant  and  pious  fervor.  The  victory  of  Gideon 
over  the  Midianites  by  means  of  a  stratagem ;  the  narra- 
tive of  Samson's  slaughter  of  the  Philistines  and  of  his 
ignominious  capture  and  death ;  the  triumph  of  Jephthah 
over  the  Ammonites  and  his  fatal  vow  leading  to  the 
sacrifice  of  his  only  daughter, —  these  are  interesting  stories 
made  familiar  to  many  in  childhood. 

The  Hebrew  Monarchy. — The  time  of  the  Judges  was 
essentially  a  formative,  period.  Through  bitter  experience 
the  Hebrew  tribes,  not  unlike  the  American  colonies,  were 
brought  to  recognize  the  need  of  closer  union.  Their  only 
security  against  internal  anarchy  and  alien  subjugation 
was  found  in  a  national  organization,  such  as  existed 
among  the  peoples  about  them. 

When  the  Hebrew  elders  demanded  a  king,  the  aged 
and  saintly  Samuel,  the  last  of  the  Judges,  endeavored  to 
dissuade  them  from  their  purpose.  Accordingly,  in  an 
interesting  discourse,  he  portrayed  the  tyrannous  rule  of 
an  Oriental  despot.  "  He  will  take  your  sons,"  he  said, 
"  and  appoint  them  for  himself,  for  his  chariots,  and  to  be 
his  horsemen  ;  and  some  shall  run  before  his  chariots. 
And  he  will  appoint  him  captains  over  thousands,  and 
captains  over  fifties ;  and  will  set  them  to  ear  his 
ground,  and  to  reap  his  harvest,  and  to  make  his  instru- 
ments of  war,  and  instruments  of  his  chariots.  And  he 

1  Judges  2:  16-19. 


THE  PEOPLE   OF  ISRAEL 


59 


will  take  your  daughters  to  be  confectionaries,  and  to  be 
cooks,  and  to  be  bakers.  And  he  will  take  your  fields, 
and  your  vineyards,  and  your  olive-yards,  even  the  best  of 
them,  and  give  them  to  his  servants."1 

Saul.  —  But  the  monarchical  movement  was  not  to  be 
checked.  Accordingly  Saul,  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  was 
selected  as  the  first  Hebrew  king  at  a  national  assembly 
held  at  Mizpelffr62O  B.c.Jj'  His  tall  and  handsome  person 
delighted  the  multitude,  who  hailed  the  new  sovereign 
with  the  spontaneous  acclaim,  "God  save  the  king."  Im- 
portant events  speedily  confirmed  the  royal  power.  Saul 
waged  a  vigorous  and  successful  campaign  against  the 
haughty  Ammonites  —  a  triumph  that  silenced  the  mal- 
content opponents  of  the  monarchy.  A  little  later  he 
overcame  the  Philistines  and  the  Amalekites.  These 
victories,  which  restored  the  independence  of  Israel, 
amply  vindicated  the  establishment  of  the  kingdom. 

But  Saul,  though  a  brave  patriotic  leader,  was  deficient 
in  statesmanlike  ability.  The  latter  years  of  his  reign 
were  saddened  by  the  alienation  of  the  priestly  class  and 
by  his  violent  jealousy  of  David,  whose  heroism  had  won 
him  great  popular  favor.  At  last,  in  a  battle  with  the 
Philistines,  in  which  three  of  his  sons  had  been  slain,  Saul 
himself  was  sorely  wounded,  and  fearing  torture  at  the 
hands  of  the  enemy,  he  fell  upon  his  sword. 

David  (1002  B.C.). — The  second  king  of  Israel  was 
David,  a  man  of  fearless  courage,  of  large  'experience, 
and  of  regal  ability.  His  triumph  over  Goliath r  the 
Philistine  champion,  had  made  him  a  national  hero. 
Though  the  jealousy  of  Saul  had  for  several  years  made 
him  an  outlaw  and  driven  him  into  exile,  he  tactfully  cul- 
tivated the  favor  of  the  tribal  leaders.  He  was  especially 

1  Sam.  8:  11-20. 


60  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

strong  in  the  favor  of  the  influential  priestly  class.  Ac- 
cordingly, after  a  brief  period  of  rivalry  and  confusion, 
he  was  chosen  king  by  "all  the  elders  of  Israel,"  and  at 
once  he  adopted  thoughtful  measures  to  strengthen  the 
royal  power. 

A  National  Capital.  —  Unlike  Saul,  he  recognized  ,  the 
utility  of  a  national  capital  and  princely  court;  and  to 
this  end  he  forcibly  took  possession  of  the  city  of  the 
Jebusites,  which  was  subsequently  to  be  known  through- 
out the  earth  as  Jerusalem,  or  the  city  of  David.  Here, 
through  the  cooperation  of  Hirajn,  King  of  Tyre,  he  built 
a  palace,  and  surrounded  himself  with  all  the  ceremony 
and  insignia  of  regal  authority. 

Furthermore,  he  brought  the  ark  of  the  covenant  from  a 
private  house  at  Kirjath-jearim,  where  it  had  long  remained 
in  comparative  neglect,  and  in  the  midst  of"  great  national 
festivities  he  installed  it  in  a  splendid  tabernacle  at  Jeru- 
salem. No  wiser  steps  could  have  been  taken.  By 
fixing  the  seat  of  government  at  Jerusalem,  and  by 
making  it,  at  the  same  time,  the  centre  of  the  national 
religion,  David  immeasurably  strengthened  his  influence 
and  power. 

A  Strong  Nation.  — In  his  long  reign  of  forty  years,  he 
raised  the  Hebrew  people  to  a  dignity  and  might  which 
they  had  not  previously  known.  He  overcame  the  Philis- 
tines, the  hereditary  enemies  of  Israel;  he  defeated  the 
Moabites ;  he  established  strongholds  in  Edom,  an 
Arabian  district  southeast  of  Canaan.  For  a  brief  period 
he  realized  the,  ambitious  dreams  of  the  people,  and  made 
the  Hebrew  monarchy  a  formidable  power  in  southwestern 
Asia. 

Personal  Traits.  —  Not  wholly  taken  up  with  his  regal 
duties,  he  delighted  in  music  and  poetry.  He  wrote  nu- 


THE  PEOPLE  OF  ISRAEL  6 1 

merous  psalms  or  hymns,  which  have  earned  for  him  the 
proud  title  of  "  sweet  singer  of  Israel."  But,  in  spite  of  his 
high  and  varied  endowments,  there  was  a  darker  side  to 
his  character.  He  was  sometimes  cruel  and  licentious  ; 
and  the  later  years  of  his  reign  were  disturbed  by  the 
formidable  rebellion  of  ,his  favorite,  uncontrolled  son,_Ab-^ 
salom.  But  in  his  darker  deeds  he  never  became  entirely 
"hardened,  and  every  transgression  was  followed  by  heart- 
felt penitence  and  humility. 

Solomon  (970  B.C.).  —  In  order  to  thwart  the  ambition 
of  his  eldest  suTvFvmg  son,  Adoni).ah.  David,  a  short  time 
before  his  death,  had  Solomon  proclaimed  king.  The 
young  sovereign  entered  upon  his  reign  with  a  high  sense 
of  responsibility,  and  in  a  notable  prayer  he  asked,  not 
for  riches  or  long  life,  but  for  "  an  understanding  heart 
to  judge  the  people."1 

He  was  inclined  to  peace  rather  than  to  war.  He 
improved  the  civic  administration  of  the  kingdom  ;  and 
for  this  purpose,  without  regard  to  the  ancient  tribal 
limits,  he  divided  the  kingdom  into  twelve  districts,  over 
each  of  which  he  placed  an  imperial  officer.  Each  prov- 
ince was  required  to  provide  in  turn  for  the  maintenance 
of  the  court.  This  requirement  was  not  a  light  burden,  for 
every  day  the  king's  household  demanded,  according  to 
the  ancient  record,  "  thirty  measures  [80  barrels]  of  fine 
flour,  and  threescore  measures  [160  barrels]  of  meal,  ten 
fat  oxen,  and  twenty  oxen  out  of  the  pasture,  and  an  hun- 
dred sheep,  besides  harts,  and  gazelles,  and  roebucks, 
and  fatted  fowl."2 

A  Great  Builder.  —  Solomon  was  preeminently  the  build- 
ing  king  of  Israel.  As  his  people  were  not  skilled  in  the  arts 
of  architecture,  he  concluded  a  treaty  with  Hiram,  King 

1  i  Kings  3:9.  2  i  Kings  4  :  22,  23. 


62  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

of  Tyre  in  Phoenicia,  by  which,  in  return  for  grain,  oil,  and 
wine,  he  was  to  receive  lumber  from  Lebanon  and  skilled 
workmen  in  wood  and  stone.  In  addition  to  the  royal 
palaces,  the  most  famous  of  all  his  structures  was  the 
temple  at  Jerusalem,  which,  in  its  rich  gildings  and  furnish- 
ings, displayed  extraordinary  splendor. 

To  carry  out  his  vast  building  plans,  which  covered  a 
period  of  twenty  years,  Solomon  imitated  the  kings  of 
Babylonia  and  Egypt,  and  kept  a  great  army  at  work  in 
the  forests  and  quarries.  Influenced  by  the  example  of 
Phoenicia,  the  most  energetic  and  most  daring  maritime 
nation  of  antiquity,  he  encouraged  commerce,  which  had 
previously  been  neglected  by  the  Hebrews.  An  active 
trade  sprang  up  between  the  cities  of  Phoenicia  and 
Joppa,  the  seaport  of  Jerusalem ;  and  at  Ezion- 
geber,  on  the  Red  Sea,  Solomon  maintained  a  fleet  of 
vessels,  which  skirted  the  coasts  of  Arabia,  India,  and 
Africa. 

Decadence.  —  The  later  years  of  Solomon's  reign  showed 
signs  of  decadence.  Though  gifted  with  preeminent 
wisdom,  the  report  of  which  had  drawn  the  queen 
of  Sheba  to  Jerusalem,  he  was  led  astray  by  the 
voluptuousness  of  his  splendid  court.  His  harem  con- 
tained, if  we  may  trust  the  figures  of  the  record,  seven 
hundred  princesses  as  wives  and  three  hundred  con- 
cubines. 

Through  their  influence,  many  of  whom  came  from  the 
courts  of  surrounding  nations,  he  was  betrayed  into  an 
idolatry  that  outraged  the  religious  sense  of  his  people. 
In  spite  of  the  external  splendor  he  had  introduced  into 
his  capital — a  period  when  "silver  was  as  plentiful  on  the 
streets  as  stones"  —  the  wisest  of  kings,  as  Jewish  tradi- 
tion regarded  him,  stirred  up  profound  discontent  among 


THE  PEOPLE  OF  ISRAEL  63 

the  people,  and  effectually  undermined  the  stability  of  the 
monarchy.1 

The  Kingdom  Divided.  —  The  catastrophe,  for  which  the 
folly  and  oppression  of  Solomon  had  prepared  the  way, 
was  not  long  in  coming.  At  his  death,  _Rehob.Q.amf.-hi_s_ 
son  by  an  Ammonite  princess,  ascended  the  throne.  At 
a  national  assembly  convened  at  Shechem,  the  people 
petitioned  for  an  alleviation  of  their  grievous  burdens.  A 
spirit  of  patriotism  and  concession  on  the  part  of  the  new 
king  would  have  established  his  sovereignty.  Unfortu- 
nately, brought  up  in  an  atmosphere  of  luxury  and  abso- 
lutism, Rehoboam,  disdaining  the  wise  advice  of  his  aged 
counsellors,  and  lending  a  willing  ear  to  his  young,  inexperi- 
enced courtiers,  returned  a  haughty  and  exasperating 
answer.  "  My  father  chastised  you  with  whips,"  he  said, 
"but  I  will  chastise  you  with  scorpions." 

This  tyrannical  spirit  was  immediately  met  by  a  general 
revolt.  Under  the  capable  leadership  of  Jeroboam,  who 
had  stirred  up  an  unsuccessful  rebellion  under  Solomon, 
ten  of  the  tribes  at  once  set  up  a  rival  monarchy,  known 
henceforth  as  the  kingdom  of  Israel  (Q.^O  B.C.).  Only 
two  tribes,  Judah  and  Benjamin,  remained  loyal  to  Reho- 
boam, and  form^rl  rhf>  Vinpfdnm  of  Judah.  This  unfortu- 
nate breach  between  the  tribes  was  never  healed ;  and 
weakening  the  force  of  the  Hebrew  people,  it  led  to  their 
early  and  inevitable  overthrow. 

1  "  However  great  the  splendor  of  Israel  in  Solomon's  reign,  this  advance  was 
not  without  a  darker  side.  The  new  paths  in  which  Solomon  led  his  people 
brought  the  Israelites  comfort  and  opulence,  the  advantages  and  impulses  of  a 
higher  civilization  and  more  active  intellectual  life.  But  with  the  splendor  and 
luxury  of  the  court,  and  the  increasing  wealth,  the  old  simplicity  of  manners  dis- 
appeared. The  land  had  to  bear  the  burden  of  a  rule  which  was  completely  as- 
similated to  the  forms  of  court  life  and  the  mode  of  government  established  in 
Egypt  and  Syria,  in  Babylon  and  Assyria."  —  MAX  DUNCKER,  "  History  of  Antiq- 
uity," Vol.  II.,  p.  192. 


64  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

Social  Conditions.  —  It  is  not  necessary  to  follow  the  his- 
tory of  the  two  kingdoms  in  detail ;  it  is  largely  a  record 
of  hostility  and  war  —  a  period  of  confusion  and  decadence. 
The  worship  of  Jehovah  declined,  particularly  in  the  king- 
dom of  Israel.  As  a  matter  of  state  policyjerobjcxani_had 
introduced  idolatry  into  his  kingdom  in  order  to  weaken 
the  influence  of  the  temple  service  at  Jerusalem.  "  If  the 
people  go  up  to  do  sacrifice  in  the  house  of  the  Lord  at 
Jerusalem,"  he  argued,  "  then  shall  the  heart  of  this  peo- 
ple turn  again  unto  their  lord,  even  to  Rehoboam,  King  of 
Judah."1 

From  time  to  time  there  arose  brave,  pious,  and  patriotic 
men,  known  as  prophets,  —  Amos,  Hosea,  Isaiah,  Micah, 
and  others, — who  rebuked,  in  words  of  glowing  eloquence, 
the  idolatry,  luxury,  and  vices  of  the  people.  In  the  time 
of  Ahab,  about  870  B.C.,  who  had  formed  an  alliance  with 
Tyre  and  introduced  the  worship  of  Baal,  Elijah  stands 
forth  as  a  prophetic  hero.  Hosea,  a  little  later,  is  sharp 
and  unsparing  in  denouncing  the  degenerate  state  of  soci- 
ety :  "  There  is  no  truth,  nor  mercy,  nor  knowledge  of  God 
in  the  land.  By  swearing,  and  lying,  and  killing,  and  steal- 
ing, and  committing  adultery,  they  break  out,  and  blood 
toucheth  blood." 2  These  are  representatives  of  the  prophets 
who  in  this  period  exerted  a  great  influence,  and  at  times 
determined  the  course  of  Hebrew  history. 

Fall  of  Israel  and  Judah.  —  The  divided  and  weakened 
condition  of  the  Hebrew  people  invited  foreign  invasion. 
Rehoboam  had  occupied  the  throne  but  five  years  when  he 
was  attacked  by/ShisTia^'of  Egypt,  who  captured  Jerusa- 
lem and  despoiled  the  temple  —  a  victory  portrayed  on  the 
walls  at  Karnak.  The  kingdom  of  Israel  lasted  about  two 
hundred  years,  during  which  there  was  a  succession  of  nine- 

1 1  Kings  12 :  27.  2  Hosea  4  :  2. 


THE  PEOPLE  OF  ISRAEL  65 

teen  kings.  Finally,  as  we  learned  in  the  last  chapter,  it 
was  destroyed  by  Sa^qriJJ^_whojn  ^22  B.C.  captured  Sa- 
maria, the  capital,  and  deported  the  people  into  the  eastern 
part  of  the  Assyrian  empire. 

The  kingdom  of  Judah  lasted  about  three  hundred  and 
fifty  years ;  and  among  its  nineteen  sovereigns  there  were 
men  of  distinguished  ability  and_  character.  Worthy  of 
special  mention  are[josiah  and  HezekiahJ  under  whom  a 
religious  reformation  was  effected.  Finally,  like  its  rival 
in  the  north,  the  kingdom  of  Judah  fell  a  prey  to  foreign 
invaders,  and  586  B.C.  the  people  were  carried  in  captivity 
to  Babylon. 

The  Babylonian  Exile.  —  The  Hebrews  remained  in 
captivity,  as  their  prophets  had  foretold,  for  seventy 
ye_ars.  It  was  a  period  of  great  significance.  It 
wrought  a  national  transformation.  With  the  extinction 
of  the  political  power  of  the  Hebrews,  there  came  in  some 
measure  a  spiritual  regeneration.  Never  afterwards  did 
the  Jews,  as  they  are  henceforth  called,  show  any  ten-  < 
dency  to  polytheism.  Their  adherence  to  Jehovah,  the 
one  Supreme  Being,  remains  unsullied  by  the  frequent 
lapses  into  idolatry  that  characterized  their  previous  life 
in  Canaan. 

Through  contemporary  prophets  and  a  few  of  the  psalms 
we  obtain  glimpses  of  the  period  of  exile.  In  the  brief 
chapter  of  his  prophecy,  Obadiah  reveals  the  violence  of 
the  Edomites  toward  his  subjugated  and  enfeebled  coun- 
trymen who  had  been  left  in  the  land  of  Judah.  The  book 
of  Lamentations,  as  its  name  indicates,  is  a  threnody  over 
the  ruin  of  Jerusalem.  "  How  doth  the  city  sit  solitary," 
exclaims  Jeremiah,  "  that  was  full  of  people !  how  is  she 
become  as  a  widow !  She  that  was  great  among  the  na- 
tions, and  princess  among  the  provinces,  how  is  she  be- 


Li 


66  .47V  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

come  tributary!"  1  In  the  13 7th  Psalm  there  is  a  pathetic 
picture  of  the  sorrow  of  the  exiles:  "  By  the  rivers  of  Baby- 
lon, there  we  sat  down,  yea,  we  wept,  when  we  remem- 
bered Zion.  We  hanged  our  harps  upon  the  willows  in 
the  midst  thereof.  For  there  they  that  carried  us  away 
captive  required  of  us  a  song;  and  they  that  wasted  us  re- 
quired of  us  mirth,  saying,  sing  us  one  ot  the  songs  of 
Zion." 

But  in  this  period  of  humiliation  and  sorrow,  the  leaders 
of  the  Jews  were  upheld  by  a  great  religious  and  patriotic 
faith.  They  encouraged  the  people  with  hopes  of  a  com- 
ing deliverance.  "Build  ye  houses,"  wrote  Jeremiah  to 
the  captives  in  Babylon,  "  and  dwell  in  them  ;  and  plant 
gardens,  and  eat  the  fruit  of  them.  .  .  .  For  thus  saith  the 
Lord,  that  after  seventy  years  be  accomplished  at  Babylon, 
I  will  visit  you,  and  perform  my  good  word  toward  you,  in 
causing  you  to  return  to  this  place."2  , And^EzekieJ^b}^ 
the  startling  vision  of  the  valley  of  dry  bones,  revived  the 
dead  hopes  of  his  people.  He  represents  God  as  saying, 
"  Behold,  O  my  people,  I  will  open  your  graves,  and  cause 
you  to  come  out  of  your  graves,  and  bring  you  into  the 
and  of  Israel."3 

The  Restoration. — After  the  capture  of  Babylon  (538 
B.C.)  ,  Cyrus,  the  king  of  Persia,  granted  the  Jews  permission 
to  return  to  their  native  land.  According  to  the  proclama- 
tion preserved  in  the  first  chapter  of  Ezra,  the  Persian  con- 
queror felt  an  obligation  to  restore  the  temple  at  Jerusalem. 
He  may  have  been  moved  to  this  remarkable  step  by  the 
friendly  welcome  he  received  from  the  Jews  in  Babylon. 
A  great  Hebrew  prophet  had  called  him  the  anointed  of 
the  Lord,  and  predicted  his  mighty  conquests4— an  official 
recognition  that  may  well  have  conciliated  his  favor. 

lLam.  1:1.  2  jer.  29  :  5,  10.  3  £z.  37  :  12.  4  Is.  45  :  i. 


THE  PEOPLE   OF  ISRAEL  67 

The  first  expedition  of  the  exiles  was  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Zerubbabel,  who  led  about  fifty  thousand  of  the 
Jews  from  Babylon  to  Jerusalem  and  neighboring  cities. 
The  splendid  vessels  of  the  temple,  which  Nebuchadnezzar 
had  carried  away  and  consecrated  to  his  gods,  were  mag- 
nanimously restored  to  the  Jews.  In  a  few  years  the  re- 
building of  the  temple  was  completed,  and  the  worship  of 
Jehovah  solemnly  reinstated.  In  promoting  this  work, 
the  prophets  Haggai  and  Zechariah  were  especially  ac- 
tive. 

There  were  other  expeditions  from  Babylon  under  Ezra 
and  Nehemiah.  After  nearly  a  hundred  years,  the  walls 
of  Jerusalem,  in  spite  of  the  plottings  of  enemies,  were 
completed.  Important  social  reforms  were  inaugurated. 
A  full  account  of  the  restoration  is  found  in  Ezra  and  Ne- 
hemiah. Canaan  did  not  regain  its  independence,  but  re- 
mained a  Persian  province  until  that  famous  empire  was 
overthrown  by  Alexander  the  Great  (333  B.C.). 

The  Controlling  Factor.  —  Throughout  the  long  and  H 
varied  course  of  Hebrew  history,  covering  about  a  thou- 
sand years,  its  central  and  unifying  factor  is  the  religion  of 
Jehovah.1  The  literature  of  this  Old  Testament,  which  re- 
flects the  inner  life  of  the  people,  makes  this,  truth  very 
clear.  In  almost  every  book  the  presence  and  providence 
of  Jehovah  are  recognized.  His  hand  was  recognized  alike 
in  the  joys  and  the  sorrows  that  came  to  the  people  of  Is- 
rael. In  Exodus  we  read  that  "He  relaxed  the  gripe  of 
cruelty  by  sore  visitations  in  Egypt,  and  that  He  guided  the 
fleeing  multitude  by  a  pillar  of  cloud  by  day  and  a  pillar  of 
fire  by  night.  He  established  a  covenant  with  them  at 

1  "The  peculiarity  of  the  biblical  religion  is  that  in  it  this  idea  of  the  connection 
of  religion  with  morality  is  the  all-dominating  one."  —  JAMES  ORR,  "Problem  of  the 
Old  Testament,"  p.  43. 


68  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

Sinai  in  the  midst  of  imposing  splendors.  He  provided 
for  their  needs  in  the  wilderness,  and  gave  them  victory 
over  the  tribes  of  Canaan. 

For  a  long  time  after  -the  settlement  in  the  Promised 
Land,  the  worship  of  Jehovah  was  the  chief  bond  of  unity 
among  the  separate  tribes.  After  the  building  of  the  tem- 
ple, its  splendid  ceremonial  sacrifices  and  the  great  annual 
festivals  at  Jerusalem  helped  to  centralize  and  strengthen 
the  monarchy.  National  disasters  were  regarded  as  puni- 
tive acts  of  Jehovah  on  account  of  the  sins  of  the  people. 
Their  sacred  poetry,  particularly  the  Psalms,  is  filled  with 
the  praises  of  Jehovah  ;  and  the  eloquent  discourses  of  the 
prophets  set  forth  the  character,  sovereignty,  and  righteous- 
ness of  God  with  a  fervor  and  insight  that  have  never  been 
surpassed.  Above  all  the  other  nations  of  antiquity,  re- 
ligion was  the  great  factor  of  Hebrew  life ;  and  their 
thoughts  of  God  have  become  a  part  of  the  religious  treas- 
ures of  the  modern  world. 


RESEARCH  WORK 
i.  THE   PATRIARCHAL  PERIOD 

The  separation  of  Abraham  and  Lot,  Gen.  13  :  5-13. 

An  instance  of  Oriental  hospitality,  Gen.  18  :  1-8. 

Abraham's  intercession  for  the  city  of  Sodom,  Gen.  18  :  23-33. 

The  destruction  of  two  wicked  cities,  Gen.  19:  1-29. 

The  offering  of  Isaac  in  the  land  of  Moriah,  Gen.  22  :  1-14. 

The  wooing  of  Rebecca,  Gen.  24. 

A  villanous  act  of  deception,  and  its  consequences,  Gen.  27. 

A  remarkable  vision,  Gen.  28  :  10-22. 

A  long  period  of  loving  service,  Gen.  29:  1-20. 

The  flight  of  Jacob,  Gen.  31. 

Wrestling  with  a  mysterious  stranger,  Gen.  32 :  24-32. 

The  reconciliation  of  a  family  feud,  Gen.  33  :  1-17. 

A  case  of  family  jealousy,  and  its  results,  Gen.  37. 


THE  PEOPLE  OF  ISRAEL  69 


2.   THE  HEBREWS  IN  EGYPT 

Joseph  in  the  house  of  Potiphar,  Gen.  39 :  1-20. 

The  dreams  of  two  Egyptian  prisoners,  Gen.  40. 

The  striking  dream  of  Pharaoh,  and  its  interpretation,  Gen.  41. 

Joseph's  brethren  in  Egypt,  and  his  conduct  toward  them,  Gen.  42-45. 

The  reception  of  Joseph's  father  in  Egypt,  Gen.  46,  47. 

The  measures  of  oppression  adopted  by  Ramses  II.,  Ex.  i  :  7-22. 

The  rescue  of  Moses  by  Pharaoh's  daughter,  Ex.  2  :  i-io. 

The  call  of  Moses  to  be  Israel's  deliverer,  Ex.  3,  4. 

The  increased  oppression  of  the  Hebrews,  Ex.  5  :  1-19. 

The  various  plagues  sent  upon  Egypt,  Ex.  7-12. 

The  institution  of  the  Passover,  Ex.  12 :  3-28. 

The  departure  of  the  Israelites  from  Egypt,  Ex.  13  :  17-22. 

The  pursuit  and  disaster  of  the  Egyptians,  Ex.  14  :  5-31. 

A  vigorous  triumphal  ode,  Ex.  15  :  1-23. 


3.   IN  THE  WILDERNESS 

The  marvellous  supply  of  quails  and  manna,  Ex.  16 :  2-26. 
A  victory  over  Amalek,  Ex.  17  :  8-16. 
An  improved  civil  administration,  Ex.  18  :  13-27. 
The  giving  of  the  Ten  Commandments,  Ex.  20 :  1-22. 
Various  civil  regulations,  Ex.  21-23. 
The  worship  of  the  golden  calf,  Ex.  32  :  1-25. 
The  setting  up  of  the  tabernacle,  Ex.  40  :  17-38. 
~The  various  kinds  of  sacrifices,  Lev.  1-4. 
Regulations  in  regard  to  animal  food,  Lev.  1 1  :  1-47. 
The  blessings  of  obedience  and  curses  of  disobedience,  Lev.  26. 
The  sedition  of  Miriam  and  Aaron,  Numb.  12. 
The  expedition  and  report  of  the  spies,  Numb.  13  :  17-33. 
A  rebellion  and  its  severe  punishment,  Numb.  16:  1-35. 
The  visitation  of  fiery  serpents,  and  the  remedy,  Numb.  21  :  4-9. 
The  story  of  Balaam,  Numb.  22-24. 
The  appointment  of  cities  of  refuge,  Numb.  35  :  9-34. 
An  interesting  summary  of  Israel's  life  in  the  wilderness,  Deut.  1-3. 
Severe  measures  to  guard  against  idolatry,  Deut.  13. 
The  death  of  Moses  on  the  mountain,  Deut.  34. 


70  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 


4.  THE  CONQUEST  OF  CANAAN 

Two  spies  in  the  city  of  Jericho,  Josh.  2. 

The  crossing  of  the  Jordan  toward  the  west,  Josh.  3. 

The  capture  and  destruction  of  Jericho,  Josh.  6. 

The  craft  and  bondage  of  the  Gibeonites,  Josh.  9 :  3-27. 

War  with  the  five  kings,  Josh.  10  :  1-28. 

The  distribution  of  the  land  among  the  invading  tribes,  Josh.  13-19. 

Farewell  discourse  of  Joshua,  Josh.  23. 

A  brief  summary  of  Hebrew  history,  Josh.  24:  1-28 


5.   THE  PERIOD  OF  THE  JUDGES 

Two  national  deliverers,  Judges  3 :  5-30. 

The  victory  of  Deborah  and  Barak,  Judges  4. 

A  song  of  victory,  Judges  5. 

Gideon's  stratagem  and  victory,  Judges  7. 

The  fatal  vow  of  Jephthah,  Judges  I  r  :  29-40. 

The  story  of  Samson,  Judges  13-16. 

The  defeat  of  Israel  and  loss  of  the  ark,  I  Sam.  4  :  1-18. 

The  ark  of  God  among  the  Philistines,  I  Sam.  5. 

Its  subsequent  return  to  Israel,  i  Sam.  6,  7. 


6.  THE  MONARCHY  ESTABLISHED 

The  demand  for  a  monarchy,  I  Sam.  8. 

The  anointing  and  selection  of  Saul  as  king,  I  Sam.  10. 

A  great  victory  of  the  new  king,  I  Sam.  2. 

Incidents  of  Saul's  reign,  i  Sam.  13-15. 

The  duel  between  David  and  Goliath,  i  Sam.  17:  1-54. 

The  jealousy  of  Saul,  i  Sam.  18:  5-27. 

The  famous  friendship  of  David  and  Jonathan,  i  Sam.  20. 

A  magnanimous  act  of  David,  i  Sam.  24. 

The  incident  of  Nadab  and  Abigail,  i  Sam.  25. 

An  instance  of  spiritualism,  i  Sam.  28  :  7-25. 

The  death  of  Saul,  i  Sam.  31  :  1-6. 

David's  elegy  over  Saul  and  Jonathan,  2  Sam.  i  :  17-27. 

Civil  war  between-  David  and  Ishbosheth,  2  Sam.  2. 


THE  PEOPLE  OF  ISRAEL  71 

The  murder  of  Abner  by  Joab,  2  Sam.  3  :  22-39. 

A  treacherous  murder  and  its  reward,  2  Sam.  4:  5-12. 

The  establishment  of  the  ark  of  God  in  Jerusalem,  2  Sam.  6:  12-19. 

Expansion  of  the  kingdom  by  conquest,  2  Sam.  8. 

The  famous  oarable  of  Nathan,  2  Sam.  12 :  1-14. 

David's  psalm  of  penitance,  Ps.  51. 

The  conspiracy  of  Absalom,  2  Sam.  15. 

The  death  of  Absalom  and  the  king's  lament,  2  Sam.  18 :  6-33. 

A  psalm  of  thanksgiving  for  deliverance,  2  Sam.  22. 

Solomon  made  king,  I  Kings  I  :  32-49. 

His  celebrated  choice,  I  Kings  3:  5-15. 

A  famous  judgment  of  Solomon,  I  Kings  3  :  16-28. 

His  wide  kingdom  and  magnificent  court,  I  Kings  4:  20-34. 

Preparation  for  building  the  temple,  i  Kings  5. 

The  construction  of  the  temple,  i  Kings  6. 

The  dedication  of  the  temple,  i  Kings  8. 

The  wisdom,  commerce,  and  splendor  of  Solomon,  i  Kings  10. 

The  idolatry  of  Solomon,  i  Kings  11  :  1-13. 

7.   THE  DIVIDED  KINGDOM 

The  folly  of  Rehoboam  and  revolt  often  tribes,  i  Kings  12 :  1-20. 

The  prophet  Elijah  marvellously  provided  for,  i  Kings  17. 

A  famous  contest  with  the  prophets  of  Baal,  i  Kings  18 :  17-40. 

The  flight  and  vision  of  Elijah,  i  Kings  19:  4-18. 

A  victory  over  Benhadad,  King  of  Syria,  i  Kings  20 :  1-34. 

The  murder  of  Naboth  by  Ahab  and  Jezebel,  i  Kings  21  :  1-24. 

The  translation  of  Elijah  in  a  chariot  of  fire,  2  Kings  2  :  i-i  i . 

The  defeat  of  the  Moabites  by  three  allied  kings,  2  Kings  3  :  4-27. 

Various  miracles  wrought  by  Elisha,  2  Kings  4. 

The  prophet  heals  Naaman  the  Syrian  of  leprosy,  2  Kings  5. 

The  Syrians  frightened  away  from  Samaria,  2  Kings  7. 

Jehu  anointed  king,  and  his  reign,  2  Kings  9,  10. 

The  cruelty  and  overthrow  of  Queen  Athaliah,  2  Kings  2  :  1-16. 

8.   THE  PERIOD  OF  THE  CAPTIVITY 

The  kingdom  of  Israel  overthrown  by  Shalmaneser,  2  Kings  17. 
The  invasion  and  defeat  of  Sennacherib,  2  Kings  18,  19. 


72  4 AT  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY    - 

The  life  of  Hezekiah  miraculously  prolonged,  2  Kings  20:  i-n. 

The  great  religious  reform  under  Josiah,  2  Kings  22,  23. 

The  overthrow  and  captivity  of  Judah,  2  Kings  24,  25. 

The  condition  of  Jerusalem  after  its  fall,  Obadiah  I. 

The  pitiable  condition  of  the  exiles,  Ps.  137. 

Lament  over  the  downfall  of  Jerusalem,  Lam.  1-5. 

The  destruction  of  Babylon  foretold,  Jer.  50,  51. 

Judgments  denounced  against  Babylon,  Is.  47. 

Daniel  at  the  court  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  Dan.  i  :  3-21. 

Interpretation  of  Nebuchadnezzar's  dream,  Dan.  2. 

The  incident  of  the  golden  image  and  fiery  furnace,  Dan.  3. 

A  second  dream  and  its  interpretation,  Dan.  4. 

The  impious  feast  of  Belshazzar,  Dan.  5. 

Official  jealousy  and  its  consequences,  Dan.  6. 

The  story  of  Esther  and  Ahasuerus  or  Xerxes,  Esther  i-io. 


9.   THE  RESTORATION 

The  proclamation  of  Cyrus  for  the  restoration  of  the  Jews,  Ezra  i, 

A*list  of  those  returning  under  Zerubbabel,  Ezra  2. 

The  worship  of  Jehovah  restored,  Ezra  3. 

The  decree  of  Darius,  and  completion  of  the  temple,  Ezra  6. 

The  expedition  of  Ezra  at  a  later  time,  Ezra  7. 

The  agitation  in  regard  to  mixed  marriages,  Ezra  9,  10, 

Nehemiah  despatched  to  Jerusalem  by  Artaxerxes,  Neh.  2. 

The  manner  of  rebuilding  the  walls  of  Jerusalem,  Neh.  4. 

Important  social  reforms  of  Nehemiah,  Neh.  5. 

The  reading  and  expounding  of  the  law  of  Moses,  Neh.  8. 

A  solemn  fast  and  confession,  Neh.  9. 


CHAPTER   IV 

THE    OLD    TESTAMENT    AS    LITERATURE 

Nature  of  Literature.  —  Literature  is  the  written  expres- 
sion of  human  life.  It  embodies  the  thought,  emotions, 
and  achievements  of  man.  When  the  intellectual  element 
predominates,  the  result  is  philosophy  ;  when  the  emotional 
element  is  uppermost,  we  have  poetry ;  and  when  the 
statement  of  events  is  supreme,  we  have  history.  When 
the  imagination  is  the  principal  faculty  at  work,  the  result 
is  fiction  in  some  of  its  forms  of  parable,  allegory,  or  tale. 
In  most  books,  however,  these  different  elements  are  not 
kept  entirely  distinct ;  and  hence  we  are  apt  to  find  in  the 
same  book  a  combination  of  thought,  feeling,  imagination, 
and  fact. 

We  may  take  the  book  of  Exodus  by  way  of  illustration. 
It  is  chiefly,  as  its  name  indicates,  a  narrative  of  the  deliv- 
erance of  the  children  of  Israel  from  the  bondage  of 
Egypt.  Its  statement  of  actual  occurrences  makes  it 
chiefly  historical.  But  the  author  reflects  upon  the  causes 
of  the  mighty  events  that  claim  his  attention.  He  traces 
the  deliverance  to  the  direct  interposition  of  Jehovah  — 
a  fact  that  renders  the  book  at  once  philosophical  and 
religious.  Furthermore,  the  soul  of  the  old  Hebrew  writer 
is  deeply  moved  by  the  incidents  of  the  Red  Sea ;  and 
accordingly,  his  kindled  feelings  burst  forth  in  a  song  of 
triumph.  Thus,  in  all  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament, 
we  may  recognize,  to  a  greater  or  less  degree,  the  various 
elements  that  enter  into  the  life  of  man. 

73 


74  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO   BIBLE  STUDY 

Hebrew  Literature.  —  In  the  Old  Testament  we  have  an 
invaluable  remnant  of  the  literature  of  the  Hebrew  people, 
—  a  faithful  reflection  of  their  outward  and  inner  life. 
There  are  other  writings  extant,  known  collectively  as  the 
Apocrypha,  which  are  not  usually  included  in  the  Old 
Testament ;  and  many  treatises — the  book  of  Jasher,*  the 
Wars  of  the  Lord,2  the  Acts  of  Solomon,3  and  various 
royal  chronicles4  —  have  unfortunately  been  lost. 

An  examination  of  the  Old  Testament  will  show  that  it 
is  composed  of  thirty-nine  separate  books  or  pamphlets  of 
varying  length.  The  prophecy  of  Obadiah,  for  example, 
consists  of  a  single  chapter,  while  Isaiah  contains  sixty-six 
chapters.  The  authors  of  many  of  these  books  are  un- 
known. If,  following  the  usual  view,  we  hold  Moses  to 
be  the  author  of  the  earliest  writings,  and  Malachi  the 
author  of  the  latest,  then  the  literature  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment covers  a  period  of  a  thousand  years,  —  a  period  longer 
than  the  life  of  Grecian  or  Roman  literature. 

But  however  widely  separated  in  time  and  place  the 
books  of  the  Old  Testament  may  be,  they  form  a  consist- 
ent unity  through  their  common  religious  faith  and  purpose. 
With  varying  clearness  and  fulness  they  reveal  the  exist- 
ence, righteousness,  and  providence  of  Jehovah.  This 
profound  religious  element  distinguishes  the  Old  Testa- 
ment from  all  the  contemporary  writings  of  Babylonia  and 
Egypt5 

Influence  of  Environment.  —  No  literature  can  be  fully 

1  Josh.  10:13.          2  Numb.  21  :  14.  3  i  Kings  n  :  41.          4  2  Kings  12 :  19. 

5  "  It  records  the  history  and  the  institutions  of  a  most  remarkable  people.  It 
gives  an  insight  into  their  character  and  usages,  into  their  domestic,  social,  and 
political  life ;  particularly  it  exhibits  their  religion  in  its  spirit  and  its  outward 
forms,  a  religion  altogether  unique  in  the  ancient  world,  and  the  influence  oi 
which  has  been  deep  and  widespread  in  later  times."  —  W.  H.  GREEN,  "  Higher 
Criticism  of  the  Pentateuch,"  p.  172. 


THE   OLD    TESTAMENT   AS   LITERATURE  75 

understood  without  an  acquaintance  with  the  circumstances 
under  which  it  originated.  Hebrew  literature  was  born  in 
the  presence  of  a  much  older  and  highly  developed  civili- 
zation. Abraham  carried  with  him  from  Chaldea  a  knowl- 
edge of  Babylonian  literature,  and  Moses  was  "  learned  in 
all  the  wisdom  of  the  Egyptians."  At  the  time  of  the 
migration  the  Hebrew  people  as  a  whole  shared  the 
Egyptian  culture,  in  the  presence  of  which  they  had  dwelt 
for  more  than  four  hundred  years.  Hence  we  need  not 
be  surprised  at  the  perfection  of  form  which  belongs  even 
to  the  earliest  productions  of  Hebrew  genius.  The  evolu- 
tionary hypothesis  adopted  by  Wellhausen  and  some  other 
German  scholars  seems  to  lose  sight  of  the  advanced  civil- 
ization that  prevailed,  long  before  the  days  of  Moses,  from 
the  Tigris  to  the  Nile. 

Race  and  Epoch.  —  In  a  national  literature  race  and 
epoch  are  recognized  as  moulding  influences  of  great  po- 
tency. It  is  important  to  remember  that  the  Old  Tes- 
tament is  an  Oriental  book,  —  the  product  of  a  race  of 
imaginative  temper  and  deep  religious  feeling.  The  He- 
brews magnified  the  religious  side  of  life,  and  poured 
forth  their  religious  emotions  in  fervent  poetry  and  glow- 
ing eloquence.  It  might  almost  be  said  of  them  that  they 
were  a  God-intoxicated  people.  The  fulness  and  ardor 
with  which  their  poets  have  expressed  every  phase  of  re- 
ligious feeling  —  faith,  penitence,  praise,  joy  —  have  made 
the  book  of  Psalms  a  devotional  treasury  for  thousands  of 
years. 

The  ardent  nature  of  the  Hebrew  sometimes  manifested 
itself  in  malevolence,  and  then  it  burst  forth  in  cruel 
hatred  and  unholy  imprecation.  In  war  he  did  not  rise 
above  the  barbarities  of  his  Assyrian  contemporaries,  and 
even  his  prayers  to  Jehovah  sometimes  breathed  an  im- 


76  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

placable  vengeance.  In  the  io8th  Psalm,  for  example,  we 
find  a  pitiless  hate  of  an  enemy :  "  Let  his  children  be 
fatherless,  and  his  wife  a  widow.  Let  his  children  be 
continually  vagabonds,  and  beg ;  let  them  seek  their  bread 
also  out  of  their  desolate  places.  Let  the  extortioner 
catch  all  that  he  hath ;  and  let  the  strangers  spoil  •  his 
labor.  Let  there  be  none  to  extend  mercy  unto  him ; 
neither  let  there  be  any  to  favor  his  fatherless  children." 
This  merciless  imprecation,  so  foreign  to  the  teaching  of 
Christ,  is  an  outburst  natural  to  an  offended  Oriental. 

Furthermore,  it  should  not  be  forgotten  that  the  age,  in 
which  the  scriptures  of  the  Old  Testament  were  written, 
was  lacking  in  the  scientific  spirit.  The  Hebrew  writers, 
like  their  contemporaries  in  Babylonia  and  Egypt,  looked 
on  events  with  a  childlike  credulity.  Ignorant,  in  large 
measure,  of  the  laws  of  nature,  they  attributed  any  un- 
usual event  to  the  immediate  agency  of  Jehovah.  Victory 
was  always  ascribed  to  divine  favor ;  defeat  was  always  a 
proof  of  divine  displeasure.  This  lack  of  a  scientific  spirit, 
which  took  no  account  of  secondary  causes,  was  at  once 
a  source  of  weakness  and  of  strength.  If  it  sometimes 
presents  us  with  a  childlike  conception  of  events,  it  em- 
phasizes the  divine  element  in  history.  One  of  the  dis- 
tinguishing and  edifying  features  of  the  Old  Testament 
is  its  recognition  of  the  hand  of  God  in  individual  and 
national  life.  It  is  Jehovah  who  personally  calls  Abra- 
ham, chooses  Moses,  controls  the  destinies  of  Israel,  and 
directs  the  turnings  and  overturnings  of  the  nations. 

Personal  Element.  —  It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose,  as  some 
writers  have  done,  that  surroundings,  race,  and  epoch 
explain  everything  in  history  and  literature.  There  is  a 
personal  factor  of  great  importance.  From  time  to  time 
men  of  exceptional  gifts  appear,  and  rising  above  the  level 


THE  OLD   TESTAMENT  AS  LITERATURE  77 

of  their  age,  become  centres  of  a  new  and  mighty  influ- 
ence. These  are  providential  men  —  the  subjects  of  a 
special  inspiration,  and  the  leaders  of  great  movements. 

Hebrew  history,  beyond  that  of  any  other  people,  is 
filled  with  these  inspired  men.  They  stand  at  the  begin- 
ning of  each  era ;  they  lead  every  significant  movement. 
Abraham  becomes  the  founder  of  the  Hebrew  people  by  a 
divine  vocation ;  Moses  is  the  chosen  agent  to  lead  his 
people  from  bondage  and  give  them  a  national  organiza- 
tion ;  Joshua  is  the  divinely  appointed  captain  to  direct 
the  conquest  of  Canaan ;  and  the  judges  and  prophets 
were  raised  up,  according  to  the  need  of  the  times,  to  free 
the  nation  from  oppression  or  to  call  it  to  righteous- 
ness. These  providential  men  are  the  heroes  of  Hebrew 
literature. 

Formation  of  the  Old  Testament.  —  From  the  long  period 
of  time  covered  by  its  various  books,  it  is  evident  that 
the  Old  Testament  is  a  growth.  *At  first  there  existed 
only  the  law  of  Moses.  In  successive  periods,  as  men 
were  moved  to  write  or  the  events  of  Hebrew  history  made 
it  necessary,  new  books  were  added  to  the  sacred  collec- 
tion. In  some  cases,  as  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  and  a 
few  others,  the  name  of  the  author  and  the  date  of  writing 
are  given  ;  but  unfortunately,  in  most  instances,  these  de- 
tails have  been  omitted.  This  fact  has  given  rise  to  differ- 
ences of  opinion  as  to  the  age  of  certain  books ;  but  all 
biblical  students  recognize  a  gradual  development  of  the 
Old  Testament  collection  of  writings.  But  two  or  three 
centuries  before  Christ  the  Old  Testament  had  assumed 
substantially  its  present  form,  as  is  shown  by  the  Greek 
translation,  called  the  Septuagint,  which  was  made  at  that 
time. 

Its  Careful  Preservation.  —  The  careful  preservation  of 


78  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO   BIBLE  STUDY 

the  Old  Testament  was  due  to  the  profound  reverence  of 
the  Hebrews  for  their  sacred  writings.  This  reverence  was 
a  part  of  their  education.  A  copy  of  the  Mosaic  law  was 
preserved  in  the  ark  of  the  Lord  as  a  precious  treasure.1 
It  was  made  the  religious  duty  of  every  head  of  a  family  to 
teach  the  law  to  his  children.2  At  the  end  of  every  seven 
years  it  was  read  in  the  hearing  of  all  the  people,  and 
every  king  was  required  to  make  a  copy  with  his  own 
hand.3 

There  is  a  striking  instance  of  this  reverence  for  the 
Scriptures  in  Nehemiah.  All  the  people  of  Jerusalem  had 
assembled  to  hear  "  the  law  of  Moses,  which  the  Lord  had 
commanded  Israel.  .  .  .  And  Ezra  opened  the  book  in  the 
sight  of  all  the  people ;  and  when  he  opened  it,  all  tlie 
people  stood  up."  *  In  the  iQth  Psalm  there  is  a  fine  eulogy 
of  the  law,  which  is  pronounced  "  perfect,  converting  the 
soul ";  and  in  the  first  Psalm  the  man  is  called  blessed, 
whose  "  delight  is  in  th£  law  of  the  Lord." 

This  reverent  regard,  which  was  first  felt  for  the  law  of 
Moses,  was  later  extended  to  all  the  writings  of  the  Old 
Testament,  and  led  to  a  painstaking  and  even  superstitious 
care  in  their  preservation.  "  How  firmly  we  have  given 
credit  to  these  books  of  our  nation,"  says  the  Jewish  his- 
torian Josephus,  "is  evident  by  what  we  do;  for  during  so 
many  ages  as  have  already  passed,  no  one  hath  been  so 
bold  as  either  to  add  anything  to  them,  to  take  anything 
from  them,  or  to  make  any  change  in  them."  5 

Classification  of  Writings.  —  A  very  superficial  exami- 
nation of  the  thirty-nine  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  espe- 
cially in  the  Revised  Version,  reveals  points  of  likeness  and 
difference,  which  enable  us  to  divide  them  into  several 

i  Deut.  31  :  26.  2  Deut.  6:7.  «  Deut.  17  : 18.  4Neh.  8:5. 

5  Josephus,  "Against  Apion,"  i.  8. 


THE  OLD    TESTAMENT  AS  LITERATURE  79 

clearly  marked  classes.  There  are  books  that  are  plainly 
historical  in  their  character.  They  are  chronicles  of  lead- 
ing events  in  the  life  of  the  Hebrew  people.  As  we  have 
already  seen,  Exodus  narrates  the  escape  of  the  Hebrews 
from  Egyptian  servitude.  Joshua  tells  of  the  conquest  of 
Canaan,  and  Judges  sets  forth  the  social  and  political  con- 
dition of  Israel  prior  to  the  establishment  of  the  monarchy. 
The  books  of  Kings  and  Chronicles  are  narratives  of  events 
during  the  long  regal  period. 

There  are  other  books  that  are  as  plainly  poetical  in 
their  character.  In  the  Revised  Version  they  are  printed 
in  poetic  form.  In  Job  several  persons  carry  on  a  de- 
bate or  dialogue  in  verse,  —  a  fact  that  gives  the  book  the 
character  of  a  drama.  The  Psalms  are  brief  lyrics  or  hymns. 
The  book  of  Proverbs  is  made  up  of  didactic  verse,  which 
appeals  to  the  judgment  rather  than  to  the  emotions.  In 
the  Song  of  Solomon,  as  it  is  called,  we  have  a  lyrical 
drama  of  love. 

The  closing  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  beginning 
with  Isaiah,  bear  still  a  different  character.  Their  main 
purpose  is  neither  historical  nor  poetical.  They  are  col- 
lections of  brief  sermons  or  addresses,  which  urge  the 
people  to  righteousness,  and  foretell  approaching  disaster 
or  blessing.  Thus,  in  a  general  way,  we  may  classify  the 
various  books  of  the  Old  Testament  as  historical,  poetical, 
or  prophetic. 

Hebrew  Historical  Writing. — The  historical  writing  of 
the  Hebrews,  as  contained  in  the  Old  Testament,  is  unlike 
the  historical  writing  of  the  present  day.  It  is  not  the 
purpose  of  Hebrew  history  to  exhibit  the  manifold  life  of 
the  people  or  to  trace  the  political  development  of  the 
nation.  Hence  there  is  no  effort  to  record  the  customs 
and  occupations  of  the  people,  and  to  present  their  artistic 


80  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

and  scientific  culture.  There  is  no  elaborate  study  of 
social  conditions.  What  we  learn  of  these  things  is 
merely  incidental  to  the  main  purpose. 

Hebrew  history  has  a  distinctly  religious  aim.  Its 
main  purpose  is  to  exhibit  the  dealings  of  Jehovah  with 
His  people,  and  to  establish  His  character  as  a  covenant- 
keeping  God.  It  is  a  commentary  on  the  principle  stated 
in  Deuteronomy :  "  Know  therefore  that  the  Lord  thy 
God,  He  is  God,  the  faithful  God,  which  keepeth  covenant 
and  mercy  with  them  that  love  and  keep  His  command- 
ments to  a  thousand  generations ;  and  repayeth  them  that 
hate  Him  to  their  face,  to  destroy  them ;  He  will  not  be 
slack  to  him  that  hateth  Him,  He  will  repay  him  to  his 
face.  Thou  shalt  therefore  keep  the  commandments,  and 
the  statutes,  and  the  judgments,  to  do  them."  1 

This  underlying  principle  of  Hebrew  history  is  clearly 
brought  to  light  in  the  book  of  Judges.  National  disaster 
is  there  presented  as  a  judgment  of  Jehovah  on  account  of 
the  wickedness  of  the  people.  Accordingly  we  find  it  re- 
peatedly stated  that  "  the  children  of  Israel  did  evil  in  the 
sight  of  the  Lord ;  and  the  Lord  delivered  them  into  the 
hand  of  Midian," 2  or  the  Philistines,  or  other  enemies. 
On  the  other  hand,  deliverance  and  blessing  are  presented 
as  acts  of  Jehovah  in  recognition  of  the  repentance  of  the 
people.  "  When  the  children  of  Israel  cried  unto  the 
Lord,  the  Lord  raised  up  a  deliverer  to  the  children  of 
Israel  who  delivered  them.3  "  This  vibration  between  sin 
and  righteousness  imparts  a  unique  undulatory  movement 
to  all  Hebrew  history. 

Sources  of  History.  —  The  writers  of  Hebrew  history  fol- 
lowed the  methods  of  other  historians.  All  history,  as  will 
be  seen  on  a  moment's  reflection,  ultimately  depends 

!Deut.  7:  9-11.  2  Judges  6:  2.  3  Judges  3: 9. 


THE  OLD    TESTAMENT  AS  LITERATURE  8 1 

on  testimony  or  records  contemporary  with  the  events  de- 
scribed. When  the  Hebrew  historian  was  not  contempo- 
rary with  the  events  that  he  narrated,  he  naturally  made  use 
of  oral  tradition,  official  documents,  and  other  earlier  writ- 
ings. This  is  made  evident  by  an  examination  of  the  his- 
torical books  themselves. 

The  author  of  Genesis,  whether  Moses  or  some  later 
writer,  probably  utilized  an  oral  tradition  of  creation  and 
the  flood  that  Abraham  had  brought  centuries  earlier  from 
Babylonia  to  Canaan.  In  Hebrew  history  there  are  ex- 
tracts from  writings  —  the  book  of  Jasher  and  the  Wars 
of  the  Lord  —  which  are  specifically  named.1  The  Chron- 
icles of  the  Kings  of  Israel  and  Judah  are  frequently  cited 
as  sources;  and  documents  like  Sennacherib's  blasphe- 
mous letter  to  Hezekiah2  and  the  decrees  of  Cyrus  and 
Darius3  in  reference  to  the  rebuilding  of  the  temple,  were 
probably  taken  from  the  royal  archives  of  Judah  and 
Persia. 

But  whatever  may  be  the  nature  of  the  material  that  is 
used  or  the  sources  from  which  it  is  taken,  the  Hebrew 
historian,  with  a  deep  spiritual  insight,  fitted  it  into  the 
great  religious  argument  he  was  constructing.  Through  it 
all  we  discern  the  agency  of  Jehovah  —  the  God  of  right- 
eousness who  exacts  obedience  from  His  children.4 

Interesting  Biographies.  — There  is,  perhaps,  no  other 
part  of  history  that  is  more  interesting  than  biography, 

1  See  Josh.  10 :  13 ;  2  Sam.  i :  18 ;  Numb.  21 : 14,  15. 

2  2  Kings  19  :  9-13.  8  Ezra  6 :  1-12. 

4  "  The  story  of  the  campaign  of  Chedor-laomer  must  have  been  derived  from  a 
cuneiform  tablet ;  the  story  of  Joseph  seems  to  have  been  taken  from  a  hieratic 
papyrus.  The  account  of  the  deluge  had  made  its  way  from  Babylonia  to  Canaan 
in  the  days  when  the  culture  of  Chaldea  extended  to  the  Mediterranean.  We 
thus  have  narratives  which  presuppose  an  acquaintance  not  only  with  Babylon  and 
Egypt,  but  also  with  Babylonian  and  Egyptian  documents."  —  A.  H.  SAYCE, 
"  Early  History  of  the  Hebrews,"  p.  130. 


82  AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   BIBLE   STUDY 

which  traces  the  facts  of  individual  life.  We  have  a 
natural  desire  to  know  the  lives  and  characters  of  the  men 
who  have  in  any  way  risen  above  their  fellows,  and  taken 
a  prominent  part  in  great  social,  political,  or  religious 
movements.  While  great  men  are  in  large  measure  the 
creatures  of  mighty  movements,  they  at  the  same  time  give 
direction  to  historical  development.  They  act  as  divine 
agents.  There  is  truth  in  Carlyle's  idea  that  general  his- 
tory "is  at  bottom  the  history  of  the  great  men  who  have 
worked  there." 

The  Old  Testament  contains  a  large  number  of  interest- 
ing biographical  sketches.  They  are  not,  indeed,  elaborate 
studies,  but  brief  outlines  of  salient  facts.  They  are  in- 
cidental to  the  main  purpose  of  Hebrew  history.  But  in 
many  cases  they  present  the  facts  with  sufficient  fulness  to 
enable  us  to  form  a  just  estimate  of  the  leading  spirits  of 
the  Hebrew  people.  In  their  treatment  there  is  a  singular 
and  surprising  impartiality  ;  and  the  frailties  of  even  the 
most  illustrious  characters  —  Abraham,  Moses,  David  — 
are  not  concealed  or  extenuated. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  in  Hebrew  biography,  as  in  Hebrew 
national  history,  there  is  a  great  ethical  and  religious  pur- 
pose. We  there  meet  with  the  same  inexorable  law,  that 
sin  brings  suffering  and  punishment.  When  Jacob,  for 
example,  deceives  his  father  and  wrongs  his  brother,  he 
pays  the  penalty  in  fear  and  flight ;  when  Moses  forgets 
his  station  and  disobeys  the  divine  command,  he  loses  the 
high  privilege  of  leading  his  people  into  the  Promised 
Land; l  and  when  David  is  too  indulgent  to  a  favorite  son, 
he  is  driven  from  his  capital  by  rebellion  and  plunged 
into  the  woes  of  bereavement.  On  the  other  hand,  Hebrew 
biography  teaches,  to  use  the  words  of  the  first  Psalm, 

1  Numb.  20 : 10-12. 


THE  OLD    TESTAMENT  AS  LITERATURE  83 

that  "  blessed  is  the  man  that  walketh  not  in  the  counsel 
of  the  ungodly,  nor  standeth  in  the  way  of  sinners,  nor 
sitteth  in  the  seat  of  the  scornful.  But  his  delight  is  in 
the  law  of  the  Lord,  and  in  His  law  doth  he  meditate  day 
and  night."  A 

Hebrew  Poetry.  —  The  essential  nature  of  poetry  is  / 
the  same  in  all  languages.  It  is  fundamentally  the 
literary  expression  of  emotion.  It  presupposes  an  exalta- 
tion of  soul,  which  sometimes  suffuses  the  objects  of  nature 
and  the  scenes  of  human  life  with  a  beauty  and  glory  of 
its  own,  — 

"The  light  that  never  was  on  sea  or  land." 

It  is  this  exaltation  of  soul,  in  which  the  feelings  are 
deeply  moved,  that  distinguishes  poetry  from  prose.  In 
the  latter  the  intellect  is  dominant.  When  the  psalmist 
breaks  forth  — 

"  The  heavens  declare  the  glory  of  God, 
And  the  firmament  showeth  His  handiwork," 

we  realize  at  once  that  we  are  above  the  realm  of  prose. 

While  the  essence  of  poetry  is  everywhere  the  same,  its 
form  is  different.  English  poetry  usually  requires  both 
metre  and  rhyme.  The  presence  of  a  regular  rhythm  or 
metre  distinguishes  poetry  from  poetical  prose.  The 
principle  of  Anglo-Saxon  poetry  is  alliteration.  In  Hebrew 
literature  it  is  not  rhythm  or  rhyme  or  alliteration  that 
distinguishes  poetry  from  prose,  but  parallelism,  —  the 
repetition  of  the  same  thought  in  different  words.  Take, 
for  example,  the  words  of  Balaam  as  he  stood  on  the  hill 
overlooking  the  camp  of  Israel :  — 

"  How  shall  I  curse,  whom  God  hath  not  cursed  ? 
And  how  shall  I  defy,  whom  the  Lord  hath  not  defied? 


84  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

For  from  the  top  of  the  rocks  I  see  him, 

And  from  the  hills  I  behold  him : 

Lo,  it  is  a  people  that  dwell  alone, 

And  shall  not  be  reckoned  among  the  nations. 

Who  can  count  the  dust  of  Jacob, 

Or  number  the  fourth  part  of  Israel? 

Let  me  die  the  death  of  the  righteous, 

And  let  my  last  end  be  like  his."  1 

By  omitting  the  alternate  or  parallel  lines  —  a  process 
that  does  not  alter  the  sense  —  this  splendid  outburst  of 
poetry  is  turned  into  prose. 

Variations  of  Parallelism.  —  Hebrew  poetry  is  varied 
in  two  ways:  (i)  by  the  number  of  parallel  ideas; 
and  (2)  by  the  relation  of  these  ideas.  In  the  example 
just  given,  there  is  a  single  parallelism,  the  second  line 
of  each  couplet  corresponding  to  the  first.  Sometimes 
the  parallelism  is  triple  or  compound  ;  and  in  that  case  it 
gives  a  stanzaic  structure  to  the  poem.  The  looth  Psalm 
furnishes  a  beautiful  illustration  :  — 

"  Make  a  joyful  noise  unto  the  Lord,  all  ye  lands. 
Serve  the  Lord  with  gladness  ; 
Come  before  His  presence  witli 'singing. 

"  Know  ye  that  the  Lord  He  is  God ; 
It  is  He  that  hath  made  us,  and  we  are  His  ; 
We  are  His  people,  and  the  sheep  of  His  pasture. 

<"  Enter  into  His  gates  with  thanksgiving, 
And  into  His  courts  with  praise  ; 
Give  thanks  unto  Him,  and  bless  His  name. 

"  For  the  Lord  is  good  ; 
His  mercy  endureth  forever ; 
And  His  faithfulness  unto  all  generations." 

Sometimes  there  is  a  double  parallelism  extending 
through  four  lines  —  a  combination  that  results  in  quatrain 

1  Numb.  23  :  8-10. 


THE  OLD    TESTAMENT  AS  LITERATURE  85 

verse.     Take  this  example  from  the  third  chapter  of  Prov- 
erbs :  — 

"My  son,  despise  not  the  chastening  of  the  Lord  ; 
Neither  be  weary  of  His  reproof; 
For  whom  the  Lord  loveth  He  reproveth, 
Even  as  a  father  the  son  in  whom  he  delighteth. 

"  Happy  is  the  man  that  findeth  wisdom, 
And  the  man  that  getteth  understanding ; 
For  the  merchandise  of  it  is  better  than  the  merchandise  of 

silver, 
And  the  gain  thereof  than  fine  gold. 

"  She  is  more  precious  than  rubies  ; 
And   none    of   the    things    thou  canst    desire  are  to   be 

compared  unto  her ; 
Length  of  days  is  in  her  right  hand  ; 
In  her  left  hand  are  riches  and  honor." 

Antithetic  Parallelism.  —  Sometimes  the  parallelism 
takes  the  form  of  coordination,  as  in  the  preceding  ex- 
amples ;  at  other  times  it  takes  the  form  of  antithesis  or 
contrast,  one  member  expressing  the  idea  positively  and 
the  other  negatively.  This  antithetic  parallelism  will  be 
made  clear  by  the  following  example  from  the  tenth  chap- 
ter of  Proverbs : — 

"  A  wise  son  maketh  a  glad  father ; 
But  a  foolish  son  is  the  heaviness  of  his  mother. 

"Treasures  of  wickedness  profit  nothing; 
But  righteousness  delivereth  from  death. 

"  The  Lord  will  not  suffer  the  soul  of  the  righteous  to  famish ; 
But  He  thrusteth  away  the  desire  of  the  wicked. 

"  He  becometh  poor  that  dealeth  with  a  slack  hand ; 
But  the  hand  of  the  diligent  maketh  rich." 


86  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

Elaborated  Forms.  —  By  a  combination  of  these  various 
forms  of  parallelism,  Hebrew  poetry  exhibits  a  great 
variety  of  structure.  Sometimes,  instead  of  using  coup- 
lets or  quatrains,  the  Hebrew  poet  elaborated  his  thought 
through  a  greater  number  of  lines  ;  and  in  this  case,  the 
result  is  an  irregular  ode-like  stanza.  The  following  will 
serve  as  an  illustration,  though  forms  still  more  compli- 
cated are  met  with  :  — 

"  A  worthless  person,  a  man  of  iniquity  ; 
He  vvalketh  with  a  froward  mouth  ; 
He  winketh  with  his  eyes,  he  speaketh  with  his  feet, 
He  maketh  signs  with  his  fingers : 

Frowardness  is  in  his  heart, 

He  deviseth  evil  continually, 

He  soweth  discord. 

Therefore  shall  his  calamity  come  suddenly ; 
On  a  sudden  shall  he  be  broken,  and  that  without  remedy."1 

Preachers  of  Righteousness.  —  The  third  great  division 
of  the  Old  Testament  scriptures  is  the  prophets.  Their 
writings  form  more  than  a  fourth  part  of  the  entire  collec- 
tion, —  a  fact  that  gives  an  idea  of  their  importance. 
Though  little  read  and  still  less  understood,  the  prophet- 
ical books  are  full  of  interest  and  instruction.  They  are 
contemporary  documents  of  great  historical  value  ;  and  the 
moral  and  religious  principles  they  embody  are  applicable 
to  the  social  and  political  conditions  of  the  present  day. 

The  prophets  were  not,  as  is  commonly  supposed,  fore- 
tellers of  future  events.  They  were  preachers  of  right- 
eousness,—  the  bearers  of  a  divine  message  to  a  rebellious 
people.  In  setting  themselves  against  the  iniquitous  ten- 
dencies of  their  age,  they  often  assumed  the  character 
of  reformers,  and  sometimes  suffered  cruel  persecution. 

1  Prov.  6  : 12-15. 


THE  OLD    TESTAMENT  AS  LITERATURE  87 

Elijah  had  to  flee  from  the  murderous  Jezebel,3  and  the 
faithful  Jeremiah  was  cast  into  a  dungeon.2  The  prophets 
were  patriotic  and  courageous  men  ;  their  vision  penetrated 
beneath  the  surface  of  things  ;  and  with  a  strong  con- 
sciousness of  the  truth  they  were  proclaiming,  they  im- 
pressively spoke  in  the  name  of  the  Lord.  Very  often 
their  discourses  begin  with  "  thus  saith  the  Lord."  3 

Style  of  Discourse.  —  The  discourses  of  the  prophets  are 
generally  brief.  The  major  prophets  —  Isaiah,  Jeremiah, 
and  Ezekiel  —  contain  many  separate  discourses,  which 
were  delivered  at  different  times,  and  called  forth  by  dif- 
ferent circumstances.  Like  other  orators  who  appeal  to 
the  people,  the  Hebrew  prophets  employed  all  the  arts  of 
eloquence.  Their  earnestness  as  the  conscious  represent- 
atives of  Jehovah  suffused  their  addresses  with  a  large 
emotional  element.  Isaiah,  for  example,  begins  his  proph- 
ecy with  a  bold  apostrophe :  "  Hear,  O  heavens,  and  give 
ear,  O  earth,  for  the  Lord  hath  spoken." 

Their  thought  moves  on  a  high  level,  and  their  language 
is  often  glowing  and  imaginative.  Thus,  to  the  imagina- 
tion of  Isaiah,  the  advancing  hosts  of  Assyria  appear  like 
a  tidal  wave  of  the  ocean.  "  Ah,  the  uproar  of  many 
peoples,"  he  exclaims,  "  which  roar  like  the  roaring  of  the 
seas  ;  and  the  rushing  of  nations,  that  rush  like  the  rushing 
of  mighty  waters.  The  nations  shall  rush  like  the  rushing 
of  many  waters ;  but  He  shall  rebuke  them,  and  they  shall 
flee  far  off,  and  shall  be  chased  as  the  chaff  of  the  moun- 


1  Kings  19 : 1-18.  2  Jer.  37 :  11-21. 

8  "All  these  men  have  the  consciousness  of  not  acting  in  their  own  personal 
capacities,  of  not  pronouncing  the  sentiments  of  their  own  minds,  but  as  the  in- 
struments of  a  Higher  Being,  who  acts  and  speaks  through  them ;  they  feel  them- 
selves to  be,  as  Jeremiah  expresses  it  once  in  a  remarkably  characteristic  verse, 
'the  mouth  of  God."'  —  CARL  HEINRICH  CORNILL,  "The  Prophets  of  Israel," 
p.  ii. 


88  .4 TV  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

tains  before  the  wind,  and  like  the  whirling  dust  before 
the  storm.  At  eventide  behold  terror;  and  before  the 
morning  they  are  not."  1 

In  their  effort  to  make  the  truth  impressive  and  effec- 
tive, they  exhaust  the  resources  of  figurative  speech. 
They  not  only  use  parable  and  allegory,  but  they, also 
employ  symbolical  action.  Thus  when  Ezekiel  desired  to 
proclaim  the  overthrow  of  Jerusalem,  he  made  a  model  of 
the  city,  and  in  the  presence  of  the  people  conducted  a 
mimic  siege  against  it.2  In  like  manner  Jeremiah,  to 
emphasize  the  utter  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  dashed  to 
pieces  a  potter's  vessel  as  he  spoke.  "  Thus  saith  the 
Lord;  even  so  will  I  break  this  people  and  this  city,  as 
one  breaketh  a  potter's  vessel,  that  cannot  be  made  whole 
again."3 

Foretelling  Events.  —  The  prophets  frequently  foretold 
coming  events  as  impressive  warnings.  They  based  their 
predictions  on  the  character  of  God  who  rewards  the 
righteous  and  punishes  the  wicked.  They  were  keen  ob- 
servers of  moral  and  social  conditions ;  and  in  pride,  dis- 
honesty, and  immorality  they  recognized  the  signs  of 
national  decadence,  —  the  conditions  that  invited  the  divine 
judgments.  Thus,  in  predicting  the  overthrow  of  the 
kingdom  of  Israel,  Hosea  says  :  "  Hear  the  word  of  the 
Lord,  ye  children  of  Israel :  for  the  Lord  hath  a  contro- 
versy with  the  inhabitants  of  the  land,  because  there  is 
no  truth,  nor  mercy,  nor  knowledge  of  God  in  the  land. 
There  is  nought  but  swearing  and  breaking  faith,  and  kill- 
ing, and  stealing,  and  committing  adultery ;  they  break 
out,  and  blood  toucheth  blood.  Therefore  shall  the  land 
mourn,  and  every  one  that  dwelleth  therein  shall  languish, 
with  the  beasts  of  the  field  and  the  fowls  of  heaven ;  yea, 

Is.  17  :  12-14.  2  Ezek.  4 :  1-3.  3  Jer.  19 : 10,  II. 


THE  OLD    TESTAMENT  AS  LITERATURE  89 

the  fishes  of  the  sea  also  shall  be  taken  away."  l  The  same 
principle  underlies  all  the  predictions  of  national  disaster 
found  in  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  and  the  other  prophets. 

The  predictions  of  coming  good  or  ill  were  always  con- 
ditional. As  an  upright  nation  might  invite  disaster  by 
turning  to  iniquity,  so  a  wicked  nation  might  secure  pros- 
perity by  turning  to  righteousness.  The  people  of  Nineveh, 
for  example,  escaped  the  doom  predicted  by  Jonah  through 
their  prompt  repentance.  The  conditional  character  of 
prophecy  is  clearly  set  forth  by  Jeremiah.  "  At  what  in- 
stant," says  Jehovah,  "I  shall  speak  concerning  a  nation, 
and  concerning  a  kingdom,  to  pluck  up  and  to  break  down 
and  to  destroy  it ;  if  that  nation,  concerning  which  I  have 
spoken,  turn  from  their  evil,  I  will  repent  of  the  evil  that 
I  thought  to  do  unto  them.  And  at  what  instant  I  shall 
speak  concerning  a  nation,  and  concerning  a  kingdom,  to 
build  and  to  plant  it ;  if  it  do  evil  in  my  sight,  that  it  obey 
not  my  voice,  then  I  will  repent  of  the  good,  wherewith  I 
said  I  would  benefit  them."2 

Spirit  of  Hope.  —  The  prophets  were  men  of  strong  faith 
in  Jehovah.  In  a  review  of  the  marvellous  history  of  their 
people  and  in  their  surpassing  knowledge  of  the  character 
of  God,  they  found  the  basis  of  an  inextinguishable  hope. 
Nearly  all  their  predictions  of  coming  disaster  to  Israel 
are  associated  with  a  promise  of  blessing.  It  is  their 
ineradicable  belief  that  God  will  ultimately  rescue  His 
chosen  people  and  make  them  a  blessing  to  all  the  nations. 
"  It  shall  come  to  pass  in  the  latter  days,"  says  Isaiah, 
"  that  the  mountain  of  the  Lord's  house  shall  be  established 
in  the  top  of  the  mountains,  and  shall  be  exalted  above  the 
hills  ;  and  all  nations  shall  flow  unto  it.  And  many  peoples 
shall  go  and  say,  Come  ye,  and  let  us  go  up  to  the 

1  Hos.  4 :  1-3.  2  Jer.  18  :  7-10. 


go  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

mountain  of  the  Lord,  to.  the  house  of  the  God  of  Jacob ; 
and  He  will  teach  us  of  His  ways,  and  we  will  walk  in  His 
paths;  for  out  of  Zion  shall  go  forth  the  law,  and  the 
word  of  the  Lord  from  Jerusalem.  And  He  shall  judge 
between  the  nations,  and  shall  reprove  many  peoples ;  and 
they  shall  beat  their  swords  into  ploughshares,  and  their 
spears  into  pruning-hooks :  nation  shall  not  lift  up  sword 
against  nation,  neither  shall  they  learn  war  any  more."  J 

RESEARCH  WORK 

An  extract  from  the  Wars  of  the  Lord,  Numb.  21  :  14,  15. 

A  song  from  the  book  of  Jasher.  2  Sam.  i  :  19-27. 

The  Hebrew  spirit  in  imprecation,  Ps.  109;  also  Ps.  35. 

The  call  of  Abraham,  Gen.  12  :  1-9. 

The  call  of  Moses  from  the  burning  bush,  Ex.  3. 

Reverence  for  the  law  instilled  and  exemplified,  Deut.  17:  18-20;  and 

Ezek.  8. 
A  poetic  contrast  between  the  beauty  of  nature  and  the  perfection  of 

the  divine  law,  Ps.  19. 

Sennacherib's  blasphemous  letter,  2  Kings  19:  9-13. 
The  decrees  of  Cyrus  and  Darius,  Ezra  6:  1-12. 
Contrasted  condition  of  the  righteous  man  and  the  wicked,  Ps.  I. 
An  outline  sketch  of  Isaac,  Gen.  21-35. 
Principal  events  in  the  life  of  Jacob,  Gen.  25-49. 
A  sketch  of  Joseph's  varied  career,  Gen.  30-50. 
An  outline  of  the  life  of  Moses,  Ex.,  Numb.,  and  Deut. 
A  biographical  sketch  of  Joshua,  Josh.  1-24. 
The  story  of  Gideon,  Judges  6-8. 
A  sketch  of  Samson's  career.  Judges  13-16. 
The  Life  of  Samuel,  the  last  of  the  Judges,  i  Sam.  1-25. 
A  study  of  Saul,  i  Sam.  1-31. 

A  sketch  of  David's  career,  i  Sam.  16-31  ;  2  Sam. ;    i  Kings  i,  2. 
The  life  of  Solomon,  i  Kings  i-ii. 
The  career  of  Jeroboam,  i  Kings  11-14. 
The  life  of  Elijah,  i  Kings  17-2  Kings  2. 
The  story  of  his  successor,  Elisha,  i  Kings  19-2  Kings  13. 

1  Is.  2 :  2-4. 


THE  OLD    TESTAMENT  AS  LITERATURE  91 

A  notable  psalm  of  penitence,  Ps.  51. 

An  example  of  didactic  verse,  Prov.  2. 

The  persecution  of  Jeremiah,  Jer.  37  :  11-21. 

An  arraignment  of  Jerusalem  for  its  sin,  Ezek.  22. 

The  corrupt  character  of  the  leaders  of  the  people,  Hos.  5,  6. 

The  brief  opening  discourse  of  Isaiah,  Is.  I. 

The  parable  of  the  vineyard,  Is.  5  :  1-7. 

The  allegory  of  the  vine,  Ezek.  15. 

The  destruction  of  Jerusalem  in  symbols,  Ezek.  4,  5,  and  12. 

The  conditional  character  of  prophecy,  Jer.  18  : 1-12. 

A  message  of  hope,  Is.  n,  12. 


CHAPTER   V 

SOME    STUDIES    IN    THE    PENTATEUCH 

Historical  Books.  —  The  historical  books  naturally  stand 
at  the  beginning  of  the  Old  Testament.  They  are  seven- 
teen in  number, 1  and  constitute  more  than  half  of  the  Old 
Testament  writings.  They  are  widely  different  in  character, 
and,  as  in  Kings  and  Chronicles,  often  contain  duplicate 
accounts  of  the  same  events ;  but,  as  we  have  seen  in  pre- 
vious chapters,  they  present  collectively  a  pretty  full  account 
of  Hebrew  life. 

The  authorship  and  credibility  of  some  of  these  books  have 
in  recent  years  been  much  discussed.  But,  in  spite  of  the 
conclusions  of  some  recent  critics,  the  historical  books  of 
the  Old  Testament  are  here  regarded  as  essentially  trust- 
worthy documents.  Though  they  may  sometimes  fail  in 
absolute  historical  accuracy,  though  they  may  in  part  be 
composed  of  earlier  documents  and  in  some  cases  employ 
oral  traditions  containing  imaginative  elements,  they  are 
immovably  true  in  their  great  purpose  of  exhibiting  the 
agency  of  God  in  human,  and  especially  in  Hebrew,  history. 
They  are  rich  in  their  lessons  of  truth  for  all  time. 

The  Pentateuch.  —  The  first  five  historical  books  —  Gene- 

1  Genesis,  Exodus,  Leviticus,  Numbers,  Deuteronomy,  Joshua,  Judges,  Ruth, 
i  Samuel,  2  Samuel,  i  Kings,  2  Kings,  i  Chronicles,  2  Chronicles,  Ezra, 
Nehemiah,  and  Esther. 

92 


SOME  STUDIES  IN   THE  PENTATEUCH  93 

sis,  Exodus,  Leviticus,  Numbers,  and  Deuteronomy  —  are 
often  called  the  Pentateuch,  a  Greek  word  signifiying  the 
fivefold  book.  It  gives  the  history  of  the  Hebrew  people 
from  the  creation  of  the  world  to  the  death  of  Moses.  It 
contains  the  Mosaic  law,  which  is  given  in  connection  with 
the  Hebrew  migration  from  Egypt.  In  view  of  this  im- 
portant element,  which  lies  at  the  basis  of  the  civil  and  re- 
ligious institutions  of  the  Hebrew  people,  the  Pentateuch 
is  frequently  referred  to  as  "the  law"  or  "the  law  of 
Moses." 

According  to  the  traditional  view,  the  author  of  the 
Pentateuch  is  Moses.  Whether  he  wrote  it  or  not  in  its 
present  form,  it  obviously  contains  Mosaic  elements  that 
justify  us  in  associating  it  with  the  great  lawgiver's  name. 
It  is  difficult  to  believe  that  later  Hebrew  writers  were  mis- 
taken in  referring  to  "  the  law  of  Moses,"  1  or  that  a  tradi- 
tion running  through  Hebrew  history  for  hundreds  of 
years  was  utterly  without  foundation.  But  while  we  accept, 
in  part  at  least,  the  Mosaic  authorship  of  the  Pentateuch, 
we  recognize  obvious  additions  by  a  later  hand.  Moses 
could  hardly  have  written  the  account  of  his  death  in  the 
lastchapter of  Deuteronomy;  and  the  statement  made  more 
than  once  in  Genesis  that  "  the  Canaanite  was  then  in  the 
land,"2  was  evidently  written  long  after  the  conquest. 

The  Mosaic  athorship  makes  the  Pentateuch  a  very  old 
book.  According  to  the  usual  chronology,  it  dates  from 
about  1450  B.C.  Written  by  a  man  "learned  in  all  the 
wisdom  of  the  Egyptians,"  it  reflects  a  high  degree  of 
culture.  There  is  not  so  much  a  creation  of  new  laws  as 
an  adaptation  of  old  ones ;  for  seizing  upon  codes  and 
customs  already  prevailing  in  Egypt  and  Babylonia,  Moses 

1  Josh.  8  :  32;  i  Kings  2:3:2  Kings  23  :  25 ;  Ezra  3  :  2;  and  elsewhere. 

2  Gen.  12:  6;   13:  7.     See  also  Gen.  36:  31. 


94  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

purified  and  exalted  them,  and  thus  made  an  addition  to  the 
ever  growing  revelation  of  God  to  man.1 

Genesis.  —  A  noteworthy  unity,  as  will  presently  be  seen, 
runs  through  the  whole  Pentateuch,  which  originally  formed 
a  single  book.  Genesis  —  a  Greek  word  signifying  genera- 
tion—  makes  an  appropriate  introduction  to  the  following 
books,  and  indeed  to  the  entire  Old  Testament.  Without 
it  the  rest  of  the  Pentateuch  would  in  large  measure  be 
obscure. 

Genesis  is  arranged  on  a  definite  plan,  a  knowledge  of 
which  is  important  for  a  clear  understanding  of  the  book. 
It  consists  of  two  sharply  marked  but  unequal  divisions  or 
parts.  )  The  first  part,  which  includes  the  first  eleven 
chapters,  is  devoted  to  a  very  brief  sketch  of  the  human 
race  as  a  wholej^  Its  brevity  leaves  unfilled  many  gaps 
that  have  given  rise  to  difficult  or  captious  questions.  It 
opens  with  the  sublime  statement,  carrying  us  back  un- 
measured ages,  that  "in  the  beginning  God  created  the 
heaven  and  the  earth."  Then  follows  the  order  of  creation, 
the  story  of  the  fall,  the  growing  wickedness  of  the  world, 
the  narrative  of  the  flood,  and  a  list  of  the  nations  descend- 
in  gjfrom  Novah>) 

\The  second  part  of  Genesis  extends  from  the  beginning 
of  the  twelfth  chapter  to  the  end  of  the  book.  It  is  con- 
cerned not  with  the  history  of  mankind  at  large,  but_with 
the  beginnings  of  Hebrew  history.  It  tells  of  Abraham,  who 


1 "  The  Pentateuch  substantially  belongs  to  the  Mosaic  age,  and  may  therefore  be 
accepted  as,  in  the  bulk,  the  work  of  Moses  himself.  But  it  is  a  composite  work, 
embodying  materials  of  various  kinds.  Some  of  these  are  written  documents, 
descriptive  of  contemporaneouse  vents,  or  recording  the  cosmological  beliefs  of 
ancient  Babylonia  ;  others  have  been  derived  from  the  unwritten  traditions  of  nomad 
tribes.  The  work  has  passed  through  many  editions ;  it  is  full  of  interpolations, 
lengthy  and  otherwise ;  and  it  has  probably  received  its  final  shape,  a.t  the  hands  of 
Ezra."  —A.  H.  SAYCE,  "  Early  History  of  the  Hebrews,"  p.  134... 


SOME  STUDIES  IN   THE  PENTATEUCH  95 

is  selected  to  become  the  founder  of  the  Hebrew  race,  and 
of  his  immediate  descendants,  Isaac,  Jacob,  and  Joseph. 
It  is  filled  with  interesting  pictures,  sometimes  romantic 
and  sometimes  tragic,  of  those  far-off  patriarchal  days, 
ending  with  glimpses  of  the  mighty  kingdom  of  the  Nile. 

A  Unique  Book.  —  It  will  be  recognized  that  Genesis  is 
a  unique  book.  It  presents,  in  a  connected  narrative,  the 
beginnings  of  our  race  and  the  progenitors  of  the  Hebrew 
people. l  It  places  back  of  all  things  a  personal  and  right- 
eous God.  It  brings  before  us  in  a  childlike  and  concrete 
form  the  eternal  relations  of  the  Supreme  Being  to  the  world, 
out  of  which  grows  the  fact  that  righteousness,  whether  in- 
dividual or  collective,  is  in  some  way  attended  with  blessings, 
and  wickedness  is  followed  by  evils. 

In  the  presence  of  this  high  truth,  which  is  attested  by 
all  history,  we  may  well  dismiss  the  mistaken  criticism  and 
injudicious  defence,  of  which  Genesis  has  long  been  the 
subject.  It  matters  little  whether  or  not  its  opening  chap- 
ters, as  is  sometimes  claimed,  contradict  the  results  of 
science  or  the  researches  of  archaeology.  Science  and 
absolute  historic  fact  are  apart  from  its  general  scope.  In 
its  main  purpose  of  revealing  the  being  and  providence  of 
God,  in  the  expression  of  these  great  truths  in  delightful 
incident  and  story,  it  remains  impregnably  true.  It  presents 
in  varied,  concrete  form  what  human  experience  and  philo- 
sophic insight  recognize  to-day  as  truth. 

Exodus.  —  The  last  chapters  of  Genesis,  as  we  have 
seen,  end  with  the  migration  of  Jacob  and  his  family, 
aggregating  seventy  souls,  into  Egypt,  where  they  were 

111  The  Old  Testament  opens  very  impressively.  In  measured  and  dignified 
language  it  introduces  the  story  of  Israel's  origin  and  settlement  upon  the  land  of 
Canaan  by  the  story  of  creation,  and  thus  suggests,  at  the  very  beginning,  the  far- 
reaching  purpose  and  the  world-wide  significance  of  the  people  and  religion  of 
Israel."  — JOHN  E.  McFADYEN,  "  Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament,"  p.  3. 


g6  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

assigned  a  home  in  the  northeastern  part  of  that  fertile  land. 
This  region,  known  as  the  land  of  Goshen,  was  nearest  to 
Canaan.  Under  the  blessing  of  Jehovah,  the  Hebrew  im- 
migrants enjoyed  a  marvellous  prosperity,  and  gradually 
passed  from  their  shepherd  habits  to  the  higher  plane  of 
an  agricultural  and  artisan  life.  "  The  children  of  Israel," 
says  the  sacred  record,  "  were  fruitful,  and  increased  abun- 
dantly, and  multiplied,  and  waxed  exceeding  mighty ; 
and  the  land  was  filled  with  them."  1 

After  several  centuries  the  reign  of  the  kindly  Hyksos 
kings  was  overthrown.  "  There  arose  up  a  new  king  over 
Egypt,  who  knew  not  Joseph."2  Ramses  II.,  as  we  have 
seen  in  a  previous  chapter,  adopted  cruel  measures  to 
check  the  increase  and  power  of  the  Hebrew  aliens.  He 
ordered  all  the  male  children  to  be  put  to  death.  But  the 
purposes  of  God  cannot  be  thwarted  by  the  devices  of 
men ;  and  in  the  fiery  trials  of  their  bondage,  the  Hebrews 
were  forging  the  bands  of  national  unity  and  strength. 

The  story  of  their  bondage  and  subsequent  deliverance 
is  the  subject  of  Exodus,  a  Greek  word  meaning  departure. 
The  hero  of  this  great  national  movement  was  Moses, 
whose  rescue  by  Pharaoh's  daughter,  as  told  in  the  second 
chapter,  contains  more  than  one  beautiful  touch  of  nature. 
Though  reared  in  the  royal  palace,  Moses  did  not  lose  his 
racial  sympathy  ;  and  when  he  one  day  found  an  Egyptian 
smiting  a  Hebrew  laborer,  he  wrathfully  slew  the  cruel 
taskmaster.  This  crime  led  to  his  flight ;  and  he  spent 
the  following  forty  years  in  Midian  as  a  shepherd.  It  was 
among  the  wild,  inspiring  scenes  of  the  mountains  of 
Horeb  —  scenes  that  naturally  beget  a  spirit  of  freedom  — 
that  the  call  of  God  came  to  him  from  the  burning  bush 
to  become  the  deliverer  of  his  people. 

i  Ex.  i :  7.  2  EX.  i :  8. 


SOME  STUDIES   IN   THE  PENTATEUCH  97 

Period  of  Preparation.  —  The  book  of  Exodus,  though 
consisting  of  a  continuous  narrative,  may  be  divided,  for 
the  sake  of  clearness,  into  three  parts.  The  first  part,  ex- 
tending from  the  first  to  the  twelfth  chapter,  describes  the 
condition  of  the  Hebrews  and  their  preparation  for  re- 
volt. It  contains  numerous  glimpses  of  Egypt,  which 
have  been  illustrated  or  confirmed  by  recent  discoveries.1 

When  Moses,  accompanied  by  his  brother  Aaron  as 
chief  spokesman,  appeared  before  Pharaoh,  and  demanded 
that  the  Hebrews  be  permitted  to  retire  to  the  wilderness 
to  "  hold  a  feast  unto  the  Lord,"  he  was  met  with  a 
prompt  refusal.  The  king  no  doubt  fathomed  and  re- 
sented the  purpose  of  the  two  presumptuous  or  seditious 
leaders.  He  felt  that  the  labor  of  the  Hebrew  slaves,  who 
had  already  built  great  treasure-cities,  was  too  valuable  to 
the  state  to  be  willingly  surrendered.  Then  followed  in 
rapid  succession  nine  plagues  —  the  Nile  turned  to  blood, 
frogs,  lice,  flies,  murrain,  boils  and  blains,  hail,  locusts, 
and  darkness  —  which  were  intended  to  show  the  weak- 
ness of  the  Egyptian  deities  and  the  vanity  of  Egyptian 
worship.  But  in  spite  of  all  these  sore  visitations,  the 
heart  of  the  king,  notwithstanding  his  promises,  remained 
at  the  last  moment  obdurate. 

Departure  from  Egypt.  —  The  second  part  of  Exodus, 
which  extends  from  the  twelfth  to  the  nineteenth  chapter, 
describes  the  departure  of  the  children  of  Israel  from 
Egypt.  The  passover  had  been  solemnly  celebrated  in 
the  homes  of  the  Hebrews.  The  death-angel  had  passed 
over  the  land,  and  in  every  Egyptian  household  there  was 
mourning  over  the  loss  of  the  first-born.  In  some  way 

1  "  The  history  of  Joseph  is  marvellously  true  in  all  its  details  to  what  archae- 
ology has  informed  us  were  the  facts  of  Egyptian  life."  —  A.  H.  SAYCE,  "  Early 
History  of  the  Hebrews,"  p.  87. 


98  AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   BIBLE  STUDY 

connecting  their  calamity  with  the  Hebrew  bondmen,  the 
Egyptians  with  one  consent  urged  the  departure  of  the 
Israelites. 

The  vast  multitude  of  Hebrews,  not  less  than  two  mill- 
ions in  number,  moved  eastward  with  their  flocks  and 
herds  to  Succoth,  not  far  from  the  present  line  of  the  Suez 
Canal.  Instead  of  marching  directly  toward  the  land  of 
Canaan  —  a  route  that  would  have  brought  them  into  con- 
tact with  the  frontier  fortresses  of  Egypt  —  they  turned  to 
the  southeast,  and  encamped  on  the  head  waters  of  the 
Gulf  of  Suez.  A  miraculous  pillar  of  cloud  led  the  He- 
brew hosts  by  day,  and  by  night  it  was  transformed  into  a 
pillar  of  fire. 

Meanwhile,  divining  the  purpose  of  the  Hebrews  to  es- 
cape from  Egyptian  tyranny,  Pharaoh  hastened  in  pursuit 
with  a  formidable  army.  When  the  Hebrews  saw  them- 
selves caught  between  the  forces  of  Egypt  and  the  waters 
of  the  sea,  they  were  filled  with  terror;  nevertheless,  at 
the  command  of  their  brave  and  confident  leader,  they 
moved  forward.  The  waters  were  driven  back  by  a  strong 
east  wind ;  and  along  the  marvellous  highway  thus  opened 
to  them,  the  Hebrew  armies  crossed  to  the  other  side. 
When  the  heedless  Egyptians  followed,  they  were  sud- 
denly overwhelmed  by  the  returning  waters,  and  the  deliv- 
erance of  the  Hebrew  people  was  accomplished.  No 
wonder  that  Moses  burst  forth  in  a  song  of  martial  tri- 
umph ! 1 
.  The  great  throng  now  proceeded  toward  Sinai.  Their 

1  "  What  is  the  Roman  arch  of  triumph,  or  the  pillar  crowded  with  sculpture 
compared,  as  a  memorial,  to  the  Hebrew  song  of  victory,  which,  having  survived 
so  many  ages,  is  still  fresh  and  vivid  as  ever,  and  excites  the  same  emotions  of  awe 
and  piety,  in  every  breast  susceptible  of  such  feelings,  which  it  did  so  many  ages 
past  in  those  of  the  triumphant  children  of  Israel  ?  " —  H.  H.  MlLMAN,  "  History  of 
the  Jews,"  vol.  i,  p.  140. 


SOME  STUDIES  IN    THE  PENTATEUCH  99 

long  march  was  not  without  incident.  The  people  suf- 
fered for  water;  and  when  their  supply  of  food  was 
exhausted,  they  were  marvellously  fed  on  quails  and 
manna.  Through  the  prolonged  intercession  of  Moses, 
whose  hands  were  upheld  by  Aaron  and  Hur,  the 
Hebrews,  after  a  fierce  battle,  won  a  signal  victory  over 
Amalek.  At  the  suggestion  of  his  father-in-law,  Jethro, 
who  visited  him  in  the  wilderness,  Moses  gave  the  mul- 
titude a  thorough  political  organization  by  the  appoint- 
ment of  "  rulers  of  thousands,  and  rulers  of  hundreds, 
rulers  of  fifties,  and  rulers  of  tens."  l 

At  Sinai. — The  third  part  of  Exodus,  extending  from 
chapter  nineteen  to  the  end  of  the  book,  is  devoted  to  the 
significant  events  at  Sinai.  It  narrates  the  imposing  cir- 
cumstances under  which  the  Mosaic  law  was  promulgated, 
and  the  special  covenant  which  Jehovah,  in  continuation 
of  His  promise  to  Abraham,  made  with  the  Chosen  People. 
The  Ten  Commandments  and  the  various  civil  laws,  drawn 
to  a  greater  or  less  extent  from  the  institutions  of  Egypt, 
are  full  of  interest.  It  is  here  that  the  strange  apostasy 
of  the  people  in  their  worship  of  the  golden  calf  —  a 
reminiscence  of  Egyptian  idolatry  —  is  narrated ;  and 
here  we  learn  of  the  construction  of  the  tabernacle  or 
sanctuary,  of  the  munificent  offerings  of  the  people  for 
this  work,  and  of  the  establishment  of  the  Levitical 
priesthood. 

Thus  it  is  evident  that  Exodus  contributes  an  essential 
part  to  the  political  and  religious  history  of  the  Hebrew 
people.  From  now  on,  for  nearly  a  thousand  years,  they 
are  a  separate  and  independent  nation. 

Leviticus. — The  book  of  Leviticus  —  a  word  that  sig- 
nifies pertaining  to  the  Levites  —  is  a  natural  continuation 

1  Ex.  18:  21. 


100  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

of  Exodus.  At  first  glance,  it  might  seem  an  obtrusion 
that  interrupts  the  historical  narrative ;  but  after  the 
tabernacle  had  been  set  up,  it  was  fitting  to  give  the  laws 
of  sacrifice  and  the  ritual  of  worship.  Leviticus  contains 
the  ceremonial  law,  as  contrasted  with  the  moral  law  of  the 
Decalogue.  It  prescribes  the  various  kinds  of  offerings, 
the  ceremonies  relating  to  purity  and  impurity,  and  the 
several  religious  festivals  that  were  to  be  observed. 
Throughout  the  book  the  prophetical  or  ethical  side  of 
religion  is  entirely  subordinate  to  the  priestly  or  ritual 
side ;  hence,  Leviticus  is  sometimes  known  as  the  law  or 
code  of  the  priests.1 

Leviticus  may  be  divided  into  two  parts.  The  first  part, 
including  chapters  I  to  16,  is  devoted  to  the  funda- 
mental laws  of  sacrifice,  purification,  and  atonement. 
The  sacrifices  were  of  two  kinds,  namely,  animal  and 
vegetable,  or  bloody  and  unbloody.  There  were  five  prin- 
cipal types  of  sacrifice  —  the  burnt-offering,  the  meat- 
offering, the  peace-offering,  the  sin-offering,  and  the 
guilt-offering  —  which  are  successively  described  in  the 
opening  chapters. 

In  chapters  8  to  10,  the  consecration  of  the  priests  and 
their  solemn  entry  upon  their  office  are  narrated.  Here 
we  have  the  tragedy  of  Nadab  and  Abihu,  brothers  of 
Aaron,  who  for  an  act  of  sacrilege  are  miraculously  con- 
sumed by  fire.  The  remaining  chapters  of  part  first 
(n— 1 6)  are  taken  up  with  the  laws  of  purification  and 
atonement.  The  distinction  is  made  between  clean  and 
unclean  animals ;  directions  are  given  for  the  diagnosis 

1  "  It  is  the  deliberate  expression  of  the  priestly  mind  of  Israel  at  its  best,  and  it 
thus  forms  a  welcome  foil  to  the  unattractive  pictures  of  the  priests,  which  confront 
us  in  the  pages  of  the  prophets  during  the  three  centuries  between  Hosea  and 
Malachi."  —  JOHN  E.  McFADYEN,  "  Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament,"  p.  3. 


SOME  STUDIES  IN   T&M  PENT^'EJUCfl  ,1,91 

of  leprosy ;  regulations  relating  to  purity  and  impurity 
are  laid  down ;  and  last  of  all,  the  solemn  services  of  the 
day  of  atonement  are  prescribed. 

Law  of  Holiness.  —  The  latter  half  of  Leviticus  (chap- 
ters 17-26)  is  devoted  to  what  has  been  called  "the  law  of 
holiness."  It  prescribes  that  all  animal  sacrifices  shall  be 
offered  at  the  door  of  the  tabernacle  —  a  regulation  that 
formed  a  stanch  bulwark  against  idolatry.  It  prohibits 
unlawful  marriages,  and  the  debasing  lusts  that  were  com- 
mon among  the  surrounding  nations.  It  condemns  the 
cruel  worship  of  Molech.  The  twenty-third  chapter  con- 
tains a  list  of  the  sacred  seasons  —  the  Sabbath,  the  pass- 
over,  pentecost,  the  feast  of  trumpets  or  New  Year,  the 
day  of  atonement,  and  the  feast  of  tabernacles  —  which 
were  to  be  observed.  To  these  are  added,  in  chapter  25, 
the  seventh  or  sabbatical  year,  and  after  "  seven  times 
seven  years  "  the  feast  of  Jubilee,  which  are  associated 
with  some  noteworthy  civil  regulations. 

In  the  next  to  the  last  chapter  there  is  a  remarkable 
statement  of  the  divine  philosophy  that  underlies  all  He- 
brew history.  "If  ye  walk  in  My  statutes,"  Jehovah  is 
represented  as  saying,  "  and  keep  My  commandments,  and 
do  them,  then  I  will  give  you  rain  in  due  season,  and  the 
land  shall  yield  her  increase,  and  the  trees  of  the  field 
shall  yield  their  fruit.  And  your  threshing  shall  reach 
unto  the  vintage,  and  the  vintage  shall  reach  unto  the  sow- 
ing time ;  and  ye  shall  eat  your  bread  to  the  full,  and 
dwell  in  your  land  safely.  And  I  will  give  you  peace  in 
the  land,  and  ye  shall  lie  down,  and  none  shall  make  you 
afraid :  and  I  will  rid  evil  beasts  out  of  the  land,  neither 
shall  the  sword  go  through  your  land.  And  ye  shall 
chase  your  enemies,  and  they  shall  fall  before  you  by  the 
sword."  On  the  other  hand,  a  violation  of  the  laws  of 


IS*  AN   INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

Jehovah  is  to  be  attended  with  a  corresponding  train  of 
evils. 

Numbers.  —  The  book  of  Numbers  derives  its  name 
from  the  enumeration  of  the  people  narrated  in  the  first 
chapter.  It  records  the  journeyings  of  the  Hebrews  from 
Sinai  to  the  eastern  borders  of  Canaan.  The  first'  ten 
chapters,  which  relate  chiefly  to  priestly  duties  and  cere- 
monies, form  a  kind  of  supplement  to  Leviticus. 

The  Israelites  had  now  spent  about  a  year  at  Sinai  in 
the  great  task  of  completing  their  religious  and  civil  ad- 
ministration. The  time  had  come  for  an  advance.  Ac- 
cordingly, "  on  the  twentieth  day  of  the  second  month  in 
the  second  year,"  the  cloud  rose  from  the  tabernacle,  and 
the  well-ordered  march  of  the  multitude  began.  When, 
after  a  few  days,  the  people  murmured  over  their  monoto- 
nous fare,  a  wind  "  brought  quails  from  the  sea."  The 
sedition  of  Miriam  and  Aaron  met  with  a  severe  rebuke. 
From  the  wilderness  of  Paran  spies  were  prudently  de- 
spatched into  Canaan  to  ascertain  the  character  of  the 
country.  When  the  spies,  except  Joshua  and  Caleb,  re- 
ported that  the  land,  on  account  6f  its  walled  cities  and 
stalwart  population,  was  impregnable,  the  Hebrews  broke 
forth  in  loud  complaints.  For  this  exhibition  of  ingrati- 
tude and  cowardice,  which  showed  that  they  had  not  yet 
learned  to  trust  Jehovah,  they  were  condemned  to  perish 
in  the  wilderness. 

Subsequent  Wanderings.  —  Now  followed  a  period  of  re- 
newed and  penitential  wandering,  which  extended  through 
thirty-eight  years,  and  witnessed  the  death  of  the  mur- 
muring multitude.  But  few  events  are  narrated  of  this 
sorrowful  time.  The  rebellion  of  Korah,  Dathan,  and 
Abiram  brought  a  pitiless  retribution;  for  "the  earth 
opened  her  mouth,  and  swallowed  them  up."  l 

1  Numb.  16:  32. 


SOME  STUDIES  IN   THE  PENTATEUCH  103 

Finally,  as  the  forty  years  of  wandering  drew  near  an 
end,  the  Israelites  came  to  the  wilderness  of  Zin,  south  of 
the  Dead  Sea.  Important  events  followed  in  rapid  suc- 
cession. Moses  and  Aaron,  by  their  impatience  and  dis- 
obedience, forfeited  the  privilege  of  entering  the  Promised 
Land.  Aaron  met  a  pathetic  end  on  Mt.  Hor.  When 
the  king  of  Edom  refused  the  Israelites  passage  through 
his  land,  they  were  forced  to  make  a  wide  circuit  around 
his  territory.  The  difficulties  and  dangers  of  this  long 
march  excited  an  outburst  of  discontent  among  the 
people,  whereupon  "the  Lord  sent  fiery  serpents  among 
them."1 

After  a  series  of  victories  over  Sihon,  King  of  the 
Amorites,  and  Og,  King  of  Bashan,  the  Hebrew  host  at 
last  arrived  on  the  east  side  of  Jordan,  opposite  Jericho. 
Here  the  interesting  events  connected  with  Balaam  took 
place.  The  Israelites  were  betrayed  into  idolatry  by  "  the 
daughters  of  Moab,"  and  were  mercilessly  punished. 
With  the  great  task  of  Moses  nearly  ended,  Joshua  was 
formally  installed  as  his  successor.  After  the  conquest  of 
the  Midianites,  the  territory  east  of  the  Jordan  was  divided 
among  the  tribes  of  Reuben,  Gad,  and  the  half-tribe  of 
Manasseh.2 

Deuteronomy.  —  The  last  book  of  the  Pentateuch  is 
called  Deuteronomy,  or,  as  the  name  indicates,  a  repetition 
of  the  law.  It  is  so  called  because  it  repeats  and  enforces 
many  of  the  laws  previously  given  in  Exodus,  Leviticus, 
and  Numbers.  It  is  made  up  chiefly  of  three  discourses 

1  Numb.  21 :  6. 

2  The  book  of  Numbers  "  contains  the  earliest  theory  or  tradition  of  the  Hebrews 
as  to  the  nomadic  period  of  their  history ;  through  it  (and  other  biblical  data)  the 
life  and  fortunes  of  the  Hebrews  under  Moses  before  they  settled  in  Canaan  must 
be  read,  if  any  attempt  is  made  to  read  them  at  all.  "  —  GEO.  B.  GRAY,  "  Critical 
and  Exegetical  Commentary  on  Numbers,"  p.  xliii. 


104  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

which  Moses,  at  the  end  of  the  forty  years'  wandering, 
delivered  to  the  Hebrew  people.  It  contains  a  large 
element  of  exhortation,  and  breathes  a  lofty  religious 
spirit,  which  is  reechoed  in  the  fervent  words  of  the 
great  prophets.  It  is,  therefore,  one  of  the  most  inter- 
esting and  edifying  books  of  the  Old  Testament. 

The  first  four  chapters  rehearse  in  brief  the  history  of 
the  people.  The  discourse  ends  with  an  exhortation  to 
obedience,  based  on  the  supremacy  of  God  in  all  the 
universe.  "  Know  therefore  this  day,"  says  the  great 
leader  and  lawgiver,  "and  consider  it  in  thine  heart,  that 
the  Lord  He  is  God  in  heaven  above  and  upon  the  earth 
below  :  there  is  none  else.  Thou  shalt  therefore  keep  His 
statutes,  and  His  commandments,  which  I  command  thee 
this  day,  that  it  may  go  well  with  thee,  and  with  thy 
children  after  thee,  and  that  thou  mayest  prolong  thy 
days  upon  the  earth,  which  the  Lord  thy  God  giveth  thee, 
for  ever."  l 

Second  Discourse.  — The  second  discourse  begins  with  a 
repetition  of  the  Ten  Commandments,  which  is  followed 
by  an  exhortation  of  fervent  piety  and  deep  spiritual  in- 
sight. Its  central  thought  is  obedience  to  God  springing 
from  supreme  love  to  Him.  "  Thou  shalt  love  the  Lord 
thy  God  with  all  thine  heart,  and  with  all  thy  soul,  and 
with  all  thy  might."2  In  view  of  this  love,  the  idolatry  of 
the  surrounding  nations  is  to  be  sternly  avoided.  The 
idolatrous  nations  are  to  be  exterminated ;  for  "  they  will 
turn  away  thy  sons  from  following  me,  that  they  may 
serve  other  gods." 3  Various  precepts  of  the  law,  some- 
times with  slight  modifications,  are  repeated,  among  which 
may  be  mentioned  the  release  of  the  poor  every  seventh 
year,  the  observance  of  the  three  great  annual  festivals  — 

1  Deut.  4  :  39,  40.  2Deut.  6:5.  8  Deut.  7:4. 


SOME  STUDIES  IN   THE  PENTATEUCH  105 

the  passover,  pentecost,  and  tabernacles  —  and  the  ap- 
pointment of  six  cities  of  refuge. 

Third  Discourse.  —  In  the  third  division  of  Deuteronomy 
we  have  the  blessings  and  curses  of  the  law  impressively 
set  forth.  Ready  to  depart,  Moses  once  more  affection- 
ately and  solemnly  exhorts  the  people  to  obedience.  This 
is  the  burden  of  his  farewell  discourses.  "  See,"  he  ex- 
claims, "  I  have  set  before  thee  this  day  life  and  good, 
and  death  and  evil,  in  that  I  command  thee  this  day  to 
love  the  Lord  thy  God,  to  walk  in  His  ways,  and  to  keep 
His  commandments,  and  His  statutes,  and  His  judgments."  1 

The  remainder  of  the  book  is  occupied  with  words  of 
Encouragement  to  the  people,  and  particularly  to  Joshua, 
with  two  poems,  and  an  account  of  the  death  and  burial  of 
Moses  on  the  lonely  mountain  of  Nebo.2 

Conclusion.  —  As  Genesis  forms  a  notable  introduction 
to  the  Pentateuch,  so  Deuteronomy  forms  a  no  less  notable 
conclusion.  The  children  of  Israel  now  stand  upon  the 
verge  of  their  conquest  of  Canaan.  They  constitute  a 
well-compacted  nation,  in  which  every  citizen  is  a  freeman. 
Their  worship  of  Jehovah,  who  is  adored  as  God  of 
heaven  and  earth,  distinguishes  them  from  surrounding 
peoples.3  The  laws  by  which  they  are  governed  include 
-an  elaborate  ethical  and  civil  code ;  and  under  the  severe 
training  of  the  wilderness,  the  Israelites  have  attained  to 

1  Dent.  30 :  15,  16. 

2  "  Deuteronomy  is  one  of  the  epoch-making  books  of  the  world.     It  not  only 
profoundly  affected  much  of  the  subsequent  literature  of  the  Hebrews,  but  it  left  a 
deep  and  abiding  mark  upon  Hebrew  religion,  and  through  it  upon  Christianity." 
—  JOHN  E.  McFADYEN,  "  Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament,"  p.  51. 

3  "  The  demand  which  Jehovah  makes  upon  his  people  are  moral  demands. 
They  are  continually  repeated  with  the   greatest  emphasis  and  earnestness;    the 
transgression  of  these  commandments  by  the  large  majority  of  Israel,  especially  by 
the  leaders  and  men  of  distinction,  is  the  theme   of  most  of  the  prophetic  ad- 
dresses."—A.  KUENEN,  "  The  Religion  of  Israel,"  p.  58. 


106  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

an  extraordinary  religious  development,  —  a  high  sense  of 
their  position  as  a  divinely  chosen  people.  As  Moses 
sang :  — 

"  The  Lord's  portion  is  His  people ; 

Jacob  is  the  lot  of  His  inheritance. 

He  found  him  in  a  desert  land, 

And  in  the  waste  howling  wilderness ; 

He  compassed  him  about,  He  cared  for  him, 

He  kept  him  as  the  apple  of  His  eye."  l 

But  more  than  religious  development  had  been  attained. 
The  forty  years'  wandering  in  the  wilderness  had  produced 
a  race  of  hardy,  independent,  and  fearless  men.  Their 
victories  over  Sihon  and  Og  had  kindled  their  courage. 
As  they  stood  on  the  eastern  banks  of  the  Jordan,  we 
may  well  believe  that,  while  a  well-founded  fear  seized 
upon  the  tribes  of  Canaan,  the  Hebrews  were  confidently 
eager  for  the  conquest. 

RESEARCH   WORK 
GENESIS 

The  account  of  creation,  Gen.  i,  2. 

The  story  of  the  fall,  Gen.  3. 

The  tragedy  of  Cain  and  Abel,  Gen.  4:  1-18. 

The  cause  and  incidents  of  the  flood,  Gen.  6-9. 

The  call  and  journey  of  Abraham,  Gen.  12. 

The  rescue  of  Lot,  Gen.  14. 

Renewal  of  the  covenant  with  Abraham,  Gen.  17. 

The  story  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  Gen.  18,  19. 

Banishment  of  Hagar  and  Ishmael,  Gen.  21. 

The  offering  of  Isaac,  Gen.  22. 

The  death  and  burial  of  Sarah,  Gen.  23. 

Romantic  story  of  Rebecca,  Gen.  24. 

A  domestic  conspiracy  and  deception,  Gen.  27. 

1  Deut.  32 :  9-10. 


SOME  STUDIES  IN   THE  PENTATEUCH  107 

Flight  and  vision  of  Isaac.  Gen.  28. 

Seven  years  of  loving  service,  Gen.  29. 

The  flight  of  Jacob,  Gen.  31. 

Meeting  of  Jacob  and  Esau,  Gen.  32,  33. 

Parental  partiality  and  its  consequences,  Gen.  37. 

Joseph  cast  into  prison,  Gen.  39. 

An  interpretation  of  two  dreams,  Gen.  40. 

Joseph  as  prime  minister  of  Egypt,  Gen.  41. 

Buying  corn  during  a  famine,  Gen.  42-45. 

Migration  of  Israel  into  Egypt,  Gen.  46. 

A  cruel  state  policy,  Gen.  47  :  13-26. 

A  paternal  blessing,  Gen.  49. 


EXODUS 

The  oppression  in  Egypt,  Ex.  i. 

The  early  life  of  Moses,  Ex.  2. 

The  call  of  Moses,  Ex.  3. 

The  appointment  of  Aaron  as  spokesman,  Ex.  4. 

Increased  oppression  of  the  Israelites,  Ex.  5. 

An  interview  with  the  king,  Ex.  7. 

The  visitation  of  plagues,  Ex.  8-10. 

Institution  of  the  passover,  Ex.  12. 

The  escape  of  the  Israelites,  Ex.  13. 

The  passage  of  the  Red  Sea,  Ex.  14. 

Moses'  song  of  deliverance,  Ex.  15. 

The  murmuring  multitude  fed,  Ex.  16. 

The  defeat  of  Amalek,  Ex.  17. 

The  appointment  of  civil  rulers,  Ex.  18. 

The  giving  of  the  law  at  Sinai,  Ex.  19-24. 

The  plan  of  the  tabernacle,  Ex.  25-31,  35-40. 

The  worship  of  the  golden  calf,  Ex.  32. 


LEVITICUS 

Various  offerings,  Lev.  1-7. 

Consecration  of  Aaron  and  his  sons,  Lev.  8,  9. 

The  death  of  Nadab  and  Abihu,  Lev.  10 :  1-7. 

The  distinction  of  clean  and  unclean  animals,  Lev.  n. 


Io8  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

Regulations  relating  to  leprosy,  Lev.  13,  14. 

The  high  priest  in  the  holy  place,  Lev.  16. 

The  centralization  of  sacrifices.  Lev.  17. 

Sundry  regulations  relating  to  holiness,  Lev.  18-22. 

Various  religious  festivals,  Lev.  23. 

The  septennial  Sabbath  and  year  of  Jubilee,  Lev.  25. 

A  notable  exhortation  to  obedience,  Lev.  26. 


NUMBERS 

The  numbering  of  the  Israelites,  Numb.  I. 

Various  Levitical  regulations,  Numb.  2-9. 

The  multitude  departs  from  Sinai,  Numb.  10. 

Renewed  murmuring  and  its  results,  Numb.  n. 

The  sedition  of  Miriam  and  Aaron,  Numb.  12. 

The  mission  of  the  spies,  Numb.  13. 

Murmuring  and  condemnation  of  the  Israelites,  Numb.  14. 

Rebellion  of  Korah,  Dathan,  and  Abiram,  Numb.  16. 

Anger  and  disobedience  of  Moses,  Numb.  20. 

Visitation  of  fiery  serpents  and  the  remedy,  Numb.  21. 

The  story  of  Balaam,  Numb.  22-24. 

Joshua  appointed  Moses1  successor,  Numb.  27:  12-23. 

Fierce  war  against  the  Midianites,  Numb.  31. 

The  assignment  of  land  east  of  the  Jordan,  Numb.  32. 

Cities  of  the  Levites  and  of  refuge,  Numb.  35. 


DEUTERONOMY 

Moses  briefly  rehearses  Israel's  history,  Deut.  1-3. 
A  forcible  exhortation  to  obedience,  Deut.  4. 
Repetition  and  enforcement  of  sundry  laws,  Deut.  5-26. 
The  tribes  on  Gerizim  and  Ebal,  Deut.  27. 
Blessings  and  curses  of  the  law,  Deut.  28. 
Words  of  encouragement,  Deut.  31. 
A  song  of  Moses,  Deut.  32. 

A  poetical  blessing  of  the  twelve  tribes,  Deut.  33. 
The  death  and  burial  of  the  great  lawgiver,  Deut.  34. 


CHAPTER  VI 

FROM  THE  CONQUEST  TO  SOLOMON 

Relation  to  the  Pentateuch.  —  As  we  have  seen,  the 
Pentateuch  records  the  origin  and  development  of  the 
Hebrew  people  prior  to  the  conquest  of  Canaan.  It  de- 
scribes the  patriarchal  age,  the  protracted  sojourn  of  the 
Israelites  in  Egypt,  their  deliverance  from  tyrannical 
oppression,  and  their  weary  wanderings  on  their  march  to 
Canaan.  It  recounts  the  giving  of  the  moral  and  cere- 
monial law,  and  the  gradual  organization  of  the  Hebrews 
into  a  theocratic  commonwealth. 

The  remaining  historical  books,  which  now  come  under 
consideration,  record  a  continuation  of  Hebrew  history. 
They  complete  the  story  of  Jehovah's  dealings  with  the 
Chosen  People.  After  the  rapid  conquest  of  Canaan, 
there  followed  the  period  of  the  Judges.  At  length  the 
monarchy  was  established  under  Saul,  reached  its  culmi- 
nation under  David  and  Solomon,  was  disrupted  under 
Rehoboam,  and  then  passed  into  a  period  of  decadence, 
until  at  last  the  Hebrews  were  carried  in  captivity  to 
Assyria  and  Babylonia.  After  a  captivity  of  seventy 
years,  a  part  of  the  people  returned  under  patriotic  leaders, 
and  rebuilt  the  temple  and  walls  of  Jerusalem. 

In  our  studies  of  Hebrew  history  we  must  not  forget 
that  it  is  the  divine  rather  than  the  human  element  that  is 
made  prominent.  It  sets  forth  the  blessings  of  righteous- 
ness and  the  evils  of  iniquity.  Kings  and  courts  and  state 
policies  are  viewed  only  from  the  religious  side.  This 

109 


110          •    AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

dominant  religious  purpose  of  the  Hebrew  historian  makes 
his  records  incomplete  and  fragmentary.  His  principal 
aim  is  to  exhibit  the  continual  divine  agency  in  human 
affairs  —  an  omnipresent  factor  generally  neglected  in 
other  historical  writings. 

Book  of  Joshua.  —  The  book  of  Joshua,  which  is  named 
after  the  heroic  leader  of  the  Hebrews,  describes  the  con- 
quest of  Canaan  and  its  division  by  lot  among  the  tribes 
of  Israel.1  It  falls  naturally  into  two  well-marked  divisions. 
The  first  part,  including  twelve  chapters,  briefly  describes 
the  conquest  of  the  territory  west  of  the  Jordan.  The 
second  part,  extending  from  the  thirteenth  to  the  twenty- 
second  chapter,  describes  the  allotment  of  land  among  the 
various  tribes.  The  book  concludes  with  a  brief  farewell 
address  by  Joshua.  It  covers  a  period  of  about  seven 
years,  and  leaves  many  events  untouched. 

The  author  of  the  book  is  unknown.  According  to 
Jewish  tradition  it  was  written  by  Joshua  himself.  But 
this  can  hardly  be  true ;  for  the  book  contains  references 
and  incidents  referring  to  a  later  time.  The  conquest  of 
Hebron,  for  example,  which  is  related  in  chapter  15, 
did  not  occur  till  the  time  of  the  Judges.2  On  the  other 
hand,  it  contains  materials  furnished  by  a  contemporary 
writer,  who  had  crossed  the  Jordan.3  Moreover,  it  is  stated 
that  Rahab,  who  had  been  saved  in  the  destruction  of 
Jericho,  "  dwelleth  in  Israel  even  unto  this  day."  4  Who- 
ever the  author  may  have  been,  it  is  evident  that  he  wrote 
in  the  true  prophetic  spirit. 

1 "  The  crossing  of  the  Jordan  and  the  entry  into  this  territory  [of  Canaan] 
were  destined  to  become  of  the  utmost  importance  to  mankind.  The  land  of  which 
the  shepherd  tribes  possessed  themselves  became  the  arena  of  great  events,  so  en- 
during and  important  in  their  results,  that  the  country  in  which  they  took  place  be- 
came known  as  the  Holy  Land" — H.  GRAETZ,  "  History  of  the  Jews,"  p.  I. 
2  Judges  i :  12-15.  3  Josh.  5  :  i.  *  Josh.  6:  25. 


FROM   THE  CONQUEST   TO  SOLOMON  in 

The  Conquest.  —  After  the  death  of  Moses,  Joshua  had 
assumed  command  of  the  invading  host  of  Hebrews.  After 
the  signal  victories  on  the  east  of  the  Jordan,  the  Hebrew 
armies  were  eager  to  conquer  the  fairer  and  more  populous 
districts  lying  to  the  west  of  that  famous  stream.  Though 
the  west  Jordanic  territory  was  occupied  by  many  kings 
and  filled  with  strongly  fortified  towns,  a  dread  of  the  vic- 
torious Hebrews  preceded  their  invasion. 

As  a  precautionary  measure,  Joshua  despatched  two 
spies  to  survey  the  city  of  Jericho,  whose  strong  position 
made  it  the  key  to  the  land.  The  spies  were  concealed  by 
Rahab,  who  in  return  was  promised  protection  in  the 
approaching  siege.  After  the  spies  had  made  a  favorable 
report,  Joshua  prepared  to  advance.  The  waters  of  the 
Jordan,  which  were  swollen  by  the  spring  freshets,  divided 
before  the  approaching  ark,  and  the  Hebrew  multitude 
passed  through  on  dry  ground.  Joshua  established  his 
headquarters  at  Gilgal;  and  not  unmindful  of  his  dependence 
on  Jehovah,  he  renewed  the  rite  of  circumcision  and  cele- 
brated the  feast  of  the  Passover.  Both  of  these  rites  had 
fallen  into  abeyance  during  the  long  period  of  wandering 
in  the  wilderness. 

In  a  short  time  Jericho  was  besieged,  captured,  and  de- 
stroyed. The  trespass  of  Achan,  who  had  appropriated  "a 
goodly  Babylonish  garment "  and  a  large  amount  of  silver 
and  gold,  led  to  an  unexpected  and  humiliating  defeat. 
At  length  Ai  was  taken  by  stratagem  ;  and  afterwards 
the  blessings  and  curses  of  the  Mosaic  law  were  solemnly 
proclaimed  on  Mt.  Gerizim  and  Mt.  Ebal.  The  Gibeon- 
ites  entrapped  Joshua  into  a  treaty  of  peace,  and  for  this 
act  of  deception  were  condemned  to  perpetual  bondage. 
The  southern  part  of  Canaan  was  conquered  first;  and 
it  was  during  a  severe  battle  with  the  Amorites  that, 


112  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO   BIBLE  STUDY 

according  to  a  poem  in  the  book  of  Jasher,  Joshua 
exclaimed :  — 

"  Sun,  stand  thou  still  upon  Gibeon  ; 
And  thou,  Moon,  in  the  valley  of  Aijalon. 
And  the  sun  stood  still,  and  the  moon  stayed, 
Until  the  nation  had  avenged  themselves  of  their  enemies.1' 

Unfortunately  this  fine  poetic  passage  has  too  often  been 
translated  into  sober  prose.  The  conquest  of  northern 
Canaan  was  practically  completed  with  the  defeat  of  a 
formidable  Canaanitish  coalition  "  at  the  waters  of  Merom." 

Allotment  of  Land.  —  After  a  war  lasting  some  seven 
years  and  the  overthrow  of  thirty-one  kings,  Joshua  found 
himself  complete  master  of  the  fertile  and  populous  land 
of  Canaan.  The  promise  made  to  Abraham  centuries  be- 
fore was  at  last  fulfilled.  It  only  remained  to  assign  the 
conquered  territory  to  the  various  tribes.  To  prevent 
jealousy  and  murmuring,  the  distribution  was  made  by  lot. 
Judah  occupied  the  territory  between  the  Dead  Sea  and 
the  Mediterranean,  including  Jerusalem,  the  future  capital 
of  the  nation.  The  location  of  the  other  tribes  is  indicated 
in  the  accompanying  map. 

When  his  work  was  ended,  Joshua,  like  Moses,  delivered 
a  farewell  address,  and  renewed  the  covenant  between  the 
people  and  God.  The  discourse  has  the  fine  prophetic 
character  of  Deuteronomy.  It  recapitulates  the  blessings, 
promises,  and  threatenings  of  Jehovah,  and  ends  with  a 
fervent  exhortation  to  obedience.  "  Now  therefore  fear 
the  Lord,  and  serve  Him  in  sincerity  and  truth  :  and  put 
away  the  gods  which  your  fathers  served  on  the  other  side 
of  the  flood,  and  in  Egypt,  and  serve  ye  the  Lord."  1 

The  deep  religious  spirit  pervading  the  book  of  Joshua, 

1  Josh.  24:  14, 


THE  HOLY  LAND 

as  divided  among: 

THE  TWELVE  TRIBES 


HAN 

Hay^th  jair 

H  (A  '  SL  3  .  E     HI 

HA 


FROM   THE  CONQUEST   TO  SOLOMON  113 

as  well  as  the  Hebrew  view  of  the  conquest,  is  well  ex- 
pressed in  the  44th  Psalm :  — 

"  We  have  heard  with  our  ears,  O  God,  our  fathers  have  told  us, 

What  work  Thou  didst  in  their  days,  in  the  days  of  old. 

Thou  didst  drive  out  the  nations  with  Thy  hand,  and  planted  them  in ; 

Thou  didst  afflict  the  peoples,  and  didst  spread  them  abroad. 

For  they  gat  not  the  land  in  possession  by  their  own  sword, 

Neither  did  their  own  arm  save  them  : 

But  Thy  right  hand,  and  Thine  arm,  and  the  light  of  Thy  countenance, 

Because  Thou  hadst  a  favor  unto  them." 


Judges.  —  The  book  of  Judges  is  named  after  the  rulers 
whose  heroic  achievements  form  its  principal  theme. 
These  judges  were  not  so  much  ministers  of  justice  as 
warriors  of  heroic  spirit,  who  arose  from  time  to  time  to 
deliver  the  Israelites  from  heathen  oppression.  To  the 
mind  of  the  Hebrew  historian,  they  were  providential  men. 
"  The  Lord  raised  up  judges,"  he  says,  "  which  delivered 
them  out  of  the  hand  of  those  that  spoiled  them."  1 

Though  tradition  ascribes  the  authorship  of  the  book  to 
Samuel,  the  writer  is  not  positively  known.  From  the 
remark  that  "in  those  days  there  was  no  king  in  Israel,"  2 
it  is  evident  that  the  book  was  not  composed  till  after  the 
establishment  of  the  monarchy.  As  many  of  the  events 
described  occurred  two  or  three  centuries  earlier,  the 
author  must  have  made  use  of  oral  traditions  and  written 
documents  in  arranging  his  narrative.  The  chronology  is 
attended  with  difficulties.  Though  the  successive  periods 
of  prosperity  and  oppression  make  a  total  of  four  hundred 
and  ten  years,  it  is  probable  that  some  of  the  judges  were 
contemporary.  In  this  way  the  period  may  be  reduced  to 
harmonize  with  I  Kings  6:  I,  where  it  is  stated  that  four 

1  Judges  2 : 16.  2  Judges  18  :  i. 


114  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

hundred  and  eighty  years  elapsed  between  the  exodus  and 
the  building  of  Solomon's  temple. 

Division  of  the  Book.  —  The  book  of  Judges  is  divided 
into  three  parts.  The  first  part  (chapters  1-3  :  6)  con- 
stitutes an  introduction.  It  supplements  the  narrative  in 
Joshua,  and  shows  that  the  conquest  was  neither  so  com- 
plete nor  so  thorough  as  might  have  been  supposed  from 
the  statements  of  the  preceding  book.  Many  of  the 
native  tribes  had  been  spared ;  as  the  sacred  writer  tells 
us,  "the  children  of  Israel  dwelt  among  Canaanites, 
Hittites,  and  Amorites,  and  Perizzites,  and  Hivites,  and 
Jebusites :  and  they  took  their  daughters  to  be  their  wives, 
and  gave  their  daughters  to  their  sons,  and  served  their 
gods."1 

This  failure  relentlessly  to  exterminate  the  population 
of  Canaan  was  in  direct  contravention  of  the  instruction 
of  Moses  in  Deuteronomy.  The  evils  that  the  great  law- 
giver had  foreseen  were  not  slow  in  coming.  After  the 
older  generation  had  passed  away,  and  the  people  had 
settled  down  to  a  comfortable  agricultural  life,  they  relaxed 
in  their  devotion  to  Jehovah.  "  They  forsook  the  Lord 
God  of  their  fathers,"  says  the  narrator,  "  which  brought 
them  out  of  the  land  of  Egypt,  and  followed  other  gods,  of 
the  gods  of  the  people  that  were  round  about  them,  and 
bowed  themselves  unto  them,  and  provoked  the  Lord  to 
anger."2  For  this  apostasy  Jehovah  withdrew  his  favor, 
and  "  sold  them  into  the  hands  of  their  enemies  round 
about  them."  But  when  the  Hebrews  recognized  their 
error  and  cried  unto  the  Lord,  He  raised  up  a  succession 
of  heroic  deliverers. 

Part  Second.  —  The  second  part  of  Judges  (chapters  3  : 
7-16)  narrates  the  exploits  of  the  dozen  leaders  who  at 

1  Judges  3:5,6.  2  Judges  2 : 12. 


FROM   THE  CONQUEST   TO  SOLOMON  115 

various  times  became  national  heroes  and  liberators.  The 
history  is  written  in  the  characteristic  Hebrew  spirit.  Its 
purpose  is  not  secular  knowledge  but  religious  instruction ; 
and  hence  each  narrative  of  deliverance  begins  with  the 
statement  that  "the  children  of  Israel  did  evil  in  the  sight 
of  the  Lord.  .  .  .  Therefore  the  anger  of  the  Lord  was 
kindled  against  Israel ;  and  he  sold  them  into  the  hand  of 
their  enemies.  And  when  the  children  of  Israel  cried 
unto  the  Lord,  the  Lord  raised  up  a  deliverer  to  the  chil- 
dren of  Israel  who  delivered  them."  1 

The  first  of  the  judges  was  Othniel,  who  delivered  the 
people  from  the  tyranny  of  a  king  of  Mesopotamia. 
Ehud  broke  the  oppression  of  the  Moabites  by  the  assas- 
sination of  their  king.  The  victory  of  Deborah  and  Barak 
was  followed  by  a  triumphal  song  of  great  exaltation  of 
spirit.  Gideon  by  means  of  a  stratagem  overthrew  the 
power  of  Midian.  Through  conspiracy  and  murder 
Abimelech  for  a  time  assumed  regal  authority.  Jephthah 
gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the  Amorites,  and  then,  in 
fulfilment  of  a  foolish  vow,  put  his  daughter  to  death. 
Last  of  all  we  have  the  well-known  story  of  Samson  with 
its  strange  exhibition  of  weakness  and  strength. 

Part  Third.  —  The  third  part  of  Judges  (chapters  17-22) 
is  in  the  nature  of  an  appendix.  It  relates,  first,  a  bit  of 
private  history  belonging  to  the  early  period  of  the  Judges, 
and  secondly,  the  story  of  the  civil  war  that  came  near 


1  "  It  is  a  work  of  edification.  This  form,  however,  is  reached  by  a  redactional 
process,  and  we  are  able  to  distinguish  between  the  material  which  the  editor 
found  ready  to  hand,  and  the  additions  which  he  made.  The  substance  of  the 
book  is  a  series  of  stories  about  Israel's  deliverance.  They  are  fitted  into  a  frame- 
work which  makes  them  teach  the  uniform  lesson  that  backsliding  from  Yahveh  is 
followed  by  punishment,  in  the  form  of  war  and  defeat,  while  repentance  is  re- 
warded by  deliverance  and  victory."  — H.  P.  SMITH,  "Old  Testament  History," 
p.  87. 


Il6  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

exterminating  the  tribe  of  Benjamin.  Both  narratives  are 
valuable  for  the  light  they  throw  on  religious  and  social 
conditions.1  It  was  a  time  of  social  degeneracy ;  a  spirit 
of  lawlessness  prevailed  so  that,  as  the  song  of  Deborah 
informs  us,  "  the  highways  were  unoccupied  and  the 
travellers  walked  through  byways ; "  in  short,  "  in  .those 
days  there  was  no  king  in  Israel,  and  every  man  did  that 
which  was  right  in  his  own  eyes."  2 

Book  of  Ruth.  —  The  book  of  Ruth  is  a  charming 
Hebrew  idyll.  It  gives  us  delightful  glimpses  of  domes- 
tic  and  social  life ;  and  unlike  the  lawless  conditions  de- 
picted in  parts  of  the  book  of  Judges,  it  breathes  a  beautiful 
spirit  of  courtesy,  affection,  and  piety. 

The  scene  of  the  narrative  is  laid  "  in  the  days  when 
the  judges  ruled."3  This  statement  indicates  that  the 
author,  who  is  unknown,  lived  in  the  time  of  the  monarchy. 
The  main  purpose  of  the  book  is  to  supply  the  lineage  of 
David ;  it  could,  therefore,  hardly  have  been  written  before 
that  monarch's  accession  to  the  throne. 

The  main  facts  of  the  book,  which  possesses  the  interest 
of  a  romance,  are  well  known.  Elimelech,  a  citizen  of 
Bethlehem,  is  led  by  a  famine  to  remove,  with  his  wife 
Naomi  and  his  two  sons  Mahlon  and  Chilion,  to  the  land 
of  Moab.  He  dies  there  ;  and  his  two  sons  marry  Moabitish 
wives  named  Orpah  and  Ruth.  After  a  time  Mahlon  and 
Chilion  die,  and  Naomi  is  left  alone  with  her  two  daugh- 
ters-in-law. On  learning  that  the  famine  is  broken  in 

1  "  It  was  a  period  of  anarchy  and  perpetual  war.  Without  a  head,  and  with- 
out cohesion,  it  seems  strange  that  the  Hebrews  did  not  perish  utterly  or  become 
absorbed  by  the  older  population  of  the  land.  That  the  nation  should  have  sur- 
vived, admits  of  only  one  explanation.  It  possessed  a  common  faith,  a  common 
sanctuary,  and  a  common  code  of  sacred  laws."  — A.  H.  SAYCE,  "  Early  History  of 
the  Hebrews,"  p.  272. 

2  Judges  17  :  6.  3  Ruth  i :  i. 


FROM   THE  CONQUEST   TO  SOLOMON  117 

Judah,  Naomi  resolves  upon  returning  to  Bethlehem,  but 
urges  her  daughters-in-law  to  remain  in  their  own  country. 
Orpah  follows  her  mother-in-law's  advice;  but  Ruth  ex- 
presses her  determination  to  accompany  Naomi.  "  Whither 
thou  goest,"  she  says  affectionately,  "  I  will  go;  and  where 
thou  lodgest,  I  will  lodge ;  thy  people  shall  be  my  people, 
and  thy  God  my  God." 

After  the  return  of  the  two  women  to  Bethlehem,  Ruth 
makes  the  acquaintance  of  her  kinsman  Boaz,  "  a  mighty 
man  of  wealth,"  and  finally  becomes  his  wife.  The  fruit 
of  this  union  was  a  son,  tenderly  cherished  by  Naomi  and 
destined  to  be  the  progenitor  of  the  royal  line  of  Judah. 
"  They  called  his  name  Obed ;  he  is  the  father  of  Jesse, 
the  father  of  David." 1  It  is  a  significant  fact  that  a 
Moabite  woman  should  be  incorporated  into  the  most  dis- 
tinguished genealogical  line  of  Israel,  —  a  promise  of  the 
day  when  the  Gentile  world  was  to  share  the  faith  of  the 
Hebrew  people. 

i  and  2  Samuel.  —  Among  the  ancient  Jews  i  and  2 
Samuel  constituted  a  single  book.  The  division  was  made 
by  the  Greek  translators  of  the  Septuagint  as  a  matter  of 
convenience ;  accordingly,  the  first  book  closes  with  the 
death  of  Saul,  and  the  second  book  is  devoted  to  David. 
The  work  is  not  inappropriately  named  after  Samuel,  who 
is  the  central  figure  in  its  earlier  events. 

The  author  of  I  and  2  Samuel  is  not  known,  nor  can 
the  time  when  the  books  were  written  be  definitely  fixed. 
They  were  evidently  composed  after  the  death  of  David, 
for,  in  2  Samuel  5  :  5,  we  find  that  the  entire  length  of  his 
reign  is  given.  They  appear  to  have  been  written  after 
the  division  of  the  kingdom  and  before  the  capture  of 
Jerusalem;  hence,  according  to  the  usual  chronology,  be- 

1  Ruth  4 : 17. 


IlB  AN  INTRODUCTION-   TO   BIBLE  STUDY 

tween  976  and  588  B.C.  This  is  the  natural  conclusion 
from  i  Samuel  27 :  6,  in  which  the  writer  tells  us  that  the 
Philistine  prince  Achish  gave  Ziklag  to  David,  and  then 
adds,  "wherefore  Ziklag  pertaineth  unto  the  kings  of  Judah 
unto  this  day."  But  whatever  the  date,  the  sacred  author 
probably  had  access  to  the  contemporary  documents  •  men- 
tioned in  i  Chronicles  29 : 29,  namely,  "  the  book  of 
Samuel  the  seer,  and  the  book  of  Nathan  the  prophet,  and 
the  book  of  Gad  the  seer,"  which  contained  "  the  acts  of 
David  the  king." 

Divisions  of  the  Book.  —  The  books  of  Samuel,  which 
form  a  continuation  of  Judges,  maybe  conveniently  divided 
into  three  parts.  The  first  part,  including  chapters  i  to  7, 
narrates  the  history  of  Israel  under  its  last  two  great  judges, 
Eli  and  Samuel.  It  describes  the  birth  and  education  of 
Samuel,  the  disorders  arising  from  the  wickedness  of  Eli's 
ill-governed  sons,  the  invasion  of  the  land  by  the  Philistines, 
the  capture  of  the  ark  of  the  Lord,  the  misfortunes  it 
brought  upon  the  Philistine  cities,  the  manner  in  which 
after  seven  months  it  was  returned  to  Israel,  and  finally 
the  overthrow  of  the  Philistine  army  under  the  adminis- 
tration of  Samuel.  All  this  is  merely  introductory  to  the 
more  important  events  that  are  narrated  in  the  rest  of  the 
books. 

The  second  part,  extending  through  the  remainder  of 
the  first  book,  describes  the  establishment  of  the  monarchy 
and  the  career  of  the  first  king.  It  is  filled  with  stirring 
events.  The  people  had  long  felt  the  inadequacy  of  the 
government  of  local  judges;  and  when  Samuel's  sons 
showed  themselves  unscrupulous  and  self-seeking  men,  the 
people  made  a  formal  demand  upon  Samuel  for  the  ap- 
pointment of  a  king.  Samuel  reluctantly  yielded  assent. 
Accordingly  Saul  was  anointed  as  the  first  king  of  Israel ; 


FROM   THE  CONQUEST  TO  SOLOMON  119 

and  after  the  defeat  of  the  Ammonites,  the  previous  luke- 
warm attitude  of  many  of  the  people  was  transformed  into 
an  enthusiastic  support. 

But  Saul  lacked  the  elements  of  a  great  ruler  ;  and  after 
repeated  acts  of  transgression,  he  was  rejected,  and  David 
was  anointed  in  his  stead.  After  David  had  become  a 
popular  hero  by  the  slaying  of  the  Philistine  champion 
Goliath,  Saul  became  insanely  jealous ;  and  a  large  part 
of  the  remaining  chapters  of  I  Samuel  are  taken  up  with 
the  king's  efforts  to  have  his  imaginary  enemy  captured 
and  slain.  At  length,  desperate  and  forsaken  of  the  Lord, 
Saul  was  defeated  in  battle,  and  threw  himself  upon  his 
own  sword. 

The  Second  Book.  —  The  third  part  includes  the  whole  of 
2  Samuel.  It  gives  the  history  of  David's  reign,  during 
which  the  Hebrew  monarchy  reached  the  culmination  of 
its  power.  His  reign  began  with  civil  war ;  but  after  the 
death  of  Ishbosheth,  whom  Abner  had  set  up  as  a  rival 
king,  David  became  the  acknowledged  sovereign  of  all 
Israel  and  established  his  capital  at  Jerusalem.  In  nar- 
rating the  important  events  of  David's  reign,  the  sacred 
historian  exhibits  great  impartiality  of  judgment ;  and  ac- 
cordingly he  tells  of  the  king's  outrageous  crimes  as  well 
as  of  his  brilliant  victories  over  the  surrounding  nations. 
Notwithstanding  the  wide  extent  of  his  regal  power, 
David's  life  was  saddened  by  domestic  tragedies,  among 
which  the  most  crushing  was  the  rebellion  and  death  of  his 
favorite  son  Absalom.  His  brilliant  but  troubled  reign 
covered  a  period  of  forty  years. 

Noteworthy  Poems.  —  The  books  of  Samuel  contain 
several  noteworthy  poems,  which  are  interesting  both  for 
the  occasion  inspiring  them  and  for  the  lofty  Hebrew  spirit 
embodied  in  them.  The  first  is  the  exultant  song  of 


120  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

Hannah,  the  mother  of  Samuel,  in  which  a  strong,  trium- 
phant faith  finds  expression  :  — 

"  They  that  strive  with  the  Lord  shall  be  broken  to  pieces ; 
Against  them  shall  He  thunder  in  heaven : 
The  Lord  shall  judge  the  ends  of  the  earth  ; 
And  He  shall  give  strength  unto  the  king,  . 

And  exalt  the  horn  of  His  anointed."  l 

The  second  poem  is  called  the  Song  of  the  Bow,  which 
the  compiler  of  I  and  2  Samuel  extracted  from  the  book 
of  Jasher.  It  is  David's  elegy  over  Saul  and  Jonathan,  to 
the  latter  of  whom  he  pays  a  tender  tribute  :  — 

"  I  am  distressed  for  thee,  my  brother  Jonathan ; 
Very  pleasant  hast  thou  been  unto  me ; 
Thy  love  to  me  was  wonderful, 
Passing  the  love  of  women."  2 

The  song  of  thanksgiving  in  the  twenty-second  chapter 
of  2  Samuel  abounds  in  sublime  description.  It  is  repeated 
with  some  variations  in  the  i8th  Psalm.  The  poem  at  the 
beginning  of  the  twenty-third  chapter  is  said  to  contain  the 
last  words  of  David,  in  which  "  the  sweet  psalmist  of 
Israel "  recognizes  the  divine  presence  in  his  life  :  — 

"  The  spirit  of  the  Lord  spake  by  me, 
And  His  word  was  upon  my  tongue." 


RESEARCH  WORK 
JOSHUA 

The  mission  and  report  of  the  spies,  Josh.  2. 
The  marvellous  passage  of  the  Jordan,  Josh.  3. 
The  memorials  of  the  crossing,  Josh.  4. 
The  capture  of  Jericho,  Josh.  6. 
The  defeat  at  Ai,  and  Achan's  sin,  Josh.  7. 

1  Sam.  2:10.  2  2  Sam.  1:26. 


FROM   THE  CONQUEST  TO  SOLOMON  12 1 

The  capture  of  Ai,  Josh.  8. 

The  craft  and  punishment  of  the  Gibeonites,  Josh.  9. 

War  with  five  kings,  Josh.  10. 

The  location  of  the  various  tribes,  Josh.  13-19. 

The  cities  of  refuge,  Josh.  20. 

Joshua's  farewell  addresses,  Josh.  23,  24. 

JUDGES 

Further  wars  of  conquest,  Judges  i. 

Wickedness  of  the  next  generation,  Judges  2. 

The  exploits  of  the  first  three  judges,  Judges  3. 

The  work  of  Deborah  and  Barak,  Judges  4. 

Their  song  of  triumph,  Judges  5. 

The  story  of  Gideon,  Judges  6-8. 

The  conspiracy  of  Abimelech,  Judges  9. 

The  story  of  Jephthah,  Judges  II,  12. 

The  career  of  Samson,  Judges  13-16. 

The  introduction  of  idolatry,  Judges  17,  18. 

Crime  and  civil  war,  Judges  19-21. 

RUTH 
The  story  of  Ruth  in  detail,  Ruth  1-4. 

i  AND  2  SAMUEL 

Hannah's  song  of  thankfulness,  i  Sam.  2:  i-io. 
The  story  of  Eli  and  his  sons,  I  Sam.  2  :  12-4 :  18. 
The  ark  among  the  Philistines,  i  Sam.  4-6. 
Samuel  as  judge  of  Israel,  i  Sam.  7. 
The  Israelites  ask  for  a  king,  i  Sam.  8. 
Saul  anointed  and  established  as  king,  i  Sam.  9-11. 
Various  incidents  in  Saul's  reign,  i  Sam.  13-16. 
The  duel  of  David  and  Goliath,  i  Sam.  17. 
Friendship  of  David  and  Jonathan,  i  Sam.  18,  19. 
The  king's  violent  jealousy,  i  Sam.  18-22. 
David  spares  Saul  in  a  cave,  i  Sam.  24. 
Incident  with  Nabal,  i  Sam.  25. 


122  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

Saul  and  the  witch  of  Endor,  i  Sam.  28. 

Death  of  Saul,  i  Sam.  31. 

David's  lament  over  Saul  and  Jonathan,  2  Sam.  i  :  19-27. 

Civil  war  between  David  and  Ishbosheth,  2  Sam.  2-4. 

Jerusalem  made  the  capital  city,  2  Sam.  5. 

The  ark  of  the  Lord  brought  to  Jerusalem,  2  Sam.  6. 

David's  purpose  to  build  a  temple,  2  Sam.  7. 

War  with  the  Ammonites,  2  Sam.  10. 

Infamous  conduct  of  David,  2  Sam.  11,  12. 

Domestic  crime  and  sorrow,  2  Sam.  13,  14. 

The  conspiracy  of  Absalom,  2  Sam.  15-18. 

Amasa  murdered  by  Joab,  2  Sam.  20 : 4-13. 

A  psalm  of  thanksgiving  by  David,  2  Sam.  22. 

David's  farewell  poem,  2  Sam.  23  :  1-7. 

The  punitive  visitation  of  the  plague,  2  Sam.  24. 


CHAPTER  VII 

FROM  SOLOMON  TO  THE  RESTORATION 

1  and  2  Kings.  —  Like  i  and  2  Samuel,  the  two  books  of 
Kings  originally  formed  a  single  volume.  They  contain  a 
sketch  of  the  Hebrew  monarchy  from  the  accession  of 
Solomon  to  the  overthrow  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah  by 
Nebuchadnezzar.  They  extend  over  a  period  of  427 
years ;  or,  if  we  include  the  mention  of  Jehoiachin's  eleva- 
tion by  Evil-Merodach,  we  must  add  about  twenty-six 
years  more.  Hebrew  history  is  thus  brought  down  to 
about  562  B.C. 

The  author  of  I  and  2  Kings  is  not  certainly  known. 
By  tradition  the  authorship  has  been  assigned  to  Jeremiah 
or  Ezra.  But  whoever  the  compiler  may  have  been,  he 
adopted  the  prevailing  Hebrew  or  Deuteronomic  view  of 
history.  Accordingly,  he  traced  national  well-being  to 
loyalty  to  Jehovah,  and  national  disaster  to  the  worship  of 
idols.  The  standpoint  of  the  writer  is  clearly  shown  in 
the  divine  words  addressed  to  Solomon :  "  If  thou  wilt 
walk  before  Me,  in  integrity  of  heart,  and  in  uprightness,  to 
do  according  to  all  that  I  have  commanded  thee,  and 
wilt  keep  My  statutes  and  My  judgments  :  then  will  I  estab- 
lish the  throne  of  thy  kingdom  upon  Israel  forever.  But 
if  ye  shall  at  all  turn  from  following  Me,  ye  or  your  chil- 
dren, and  will  not  keep  My  commandments,  and  My  statutes 
which  I  have  set  before  you,  but  go  and  serve  other  gods, 
and  worship  them  :  then  will  I  cut  off  Israel  out  of  the 
land  which  I  have  given  them."  1 

1 1  Kings  9 : 4,  5. 
123 


124  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

Sources  and  Treatment.  —  The  author  wrote  during  the 
seventy  years'  captivity  or  later.  Thus  many  of  the  events 
he  narrates  occurred  centuries  before  his  time.  Like  other 
writers,  both  sacred  and  profane,  he  made  use  of  earlier 
works  and  contemporary  documents,  which  he  nearly  al- 
ways names.  For  additional  facts  about  the  reign  of  Solo- 
mon, he  refers  to  the  book  of  the  Acts  of  Solomon.  In 
treating  of  the  rulers  of  the  northern  kingdom,  he  fre- 
quently mentions  the  Chronicles  of  the  Kings  of  Israel  as 
his  authority  ;  and  in  discussing  the  rulers  of  the  southern 
kingdom,  he  refers  fifteen  times  to  the  Chronicles  of  the 
Kings  of  Judah.  These  chronicles  were  the  official  rec- 
ords, or  works  based  on  them,  prepared  by  the  royal 
recorder  or  historian. 

But  the  compiler  makes  only  brief  extracts  from  the 
larger  works,  and  arranges  them  in  an  order  or  scheme  to 
demonstrate  his  main  contention  —  true  now  as  then  — 
that  righteousness  exalts  a  nation,  and  iniquity  debases  it. 
Whenever  a  king  "  did  that  which  was  right  in  the  eyes  of 
Jehovah,"  he  was  prosperous  in  his  reign  ;  and  whenever 
he  did  evil,  he  met  with  disaster.  It  is  remarkable  that  all 
the  kings  of  Israel  are  pronounced  evil ;  and  of  the  kings 
of  Judah  only  a  few — Asa,  Jehoshaphat,  Jehoash,  Amaziah, 
Uzziah,  Jotham,  Hezekiah,  and  Josiah  —  command  the  ap- 
proval of  the  pious  historian.1 

Threefold  Division.  —  The  books  of  Kings  naturally  fall 
into  a  threefold  division.  The  first  eleven  chapters  are 
devoted  to  the  reign  of  Solomon,  and  present  to  us  his 
wisdom  and  power  and  final  lapse  into  idolatry.  There  are 

1  The  writer's  "  aim  is  to  apply  to  the  past  history  of  his  race,  from  the  time  of 
Solomon  and  onward  to  his  own  day,  the  Deuteronomic  standard,  and  to  exemplify 
the  view  that  prosperity  is  to  be  traced  to  a  faithful  regard  for  this  standard,  failure 
and  catastrophe  to  its  deliberate  repudiation."  — C.  B.  BARNEY  in  Hasting's 
"  Dictionary  of  the  Bible." 


FROM   SOLOMON   TO   THE  RESTORATION  125 

not  a  few  interesting  details.  His  choice  of  "  an  under- 
standing heart "  rather  than  happiness  or  power,  displays 
a  royal  soul.  His  decision  in  the  case  of  the  contending 
women  has  become  famous.  His  building  of  the  temple 
was  a  fine  exhibition  of  wisdom  and  piety ;  and  the  splendor 
of  his  court  and  the  extent  of  his  commerce  surrounded 
him  with  a  magnificence  which  no  other  Hebrew  monarch 
ever  enjoyed. 

The  second  part,  extending  from  the  twelfth  chapter  of 
i  Kings  to  the  seventeenth  chapter  of  2  Kings,  relates  the 
history  of  the  divided  kingdom.  Rehoboam's  insolence 
and  folly  led  to  a  revolt  of  ten  tribes  under  Jeroboam, 
who,  as  a  matter  of  state  policy,  introduced  an  idolatrous 
worship.  The  evil  results  were  seen  in  all  his  successors. 
The  fearless  words  and  deeds  of  Elijah  and  his  successor, 
Elisha,  were  not  able  to  stay  the  flood  of  iniquity.  The 
climax  of  wickedness  was  reached  under  Ahab  and  Jezebel. 
At  length,  after  387  years,  the  kingdom  of  Israel  was 
destroyed  by  the  Assyrian  monarch  Sargon  (722  B.C.), 
who  captured  Samaria  and  replaced  the  deported  popula- 
tion by  colonists  from  the  east.  During  all  this  time  the 
history  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah  is  carried  along  with  that 
of  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  and  the  contemporaneous  sov- 
ereigns are  always  given. 

The  third  part  of  the  books  of  Kings  includes  the  last 
eight  chapters.  It  is  devoted  to  an  outline  history  of  the 
kingdom  of  Judah  after  its  rival  of  the  north  had  been 
destroyed.  The  most  notable  event  is  the  discovery  of 
the  book  of  the  law  in  the  temple  during  the  reign  of 
Josiah,  and  the  thorough-going  religious  reform  which  he 
inaugurated.  But  in  spite  of  his  efforts  and  the  piety 
of  his  predecessor  Hezekiah,  whose  life  was  miraculously 
lengthened,  the  Hebrew  people  as  a  whole  had  broken 


126  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

the  covenant  of  Jehovah.  By  their  irreclaimable  idolatry 
and  wickedness,  they  finally  forfeited  the  favor  of  the 
Lord,  and  in  588  B.C.  —  one  hundred  and  thirty-four  years 
after  the  destruction  of  Samaria  —  Jerusalem  fell  a  prey 
to  the  conquering  power  of  Nebuchadnezzar.  The  He- 
brews were  carried  away  into  a  long  captivity ;  the  threatened 
wrath  of  Jehovah  had  fallen  upon  His  people. 

1  and  2  Chronicles.  — The  books  of  Chronicles,  together 
with  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  originally  formed  a  single  book. 
It  is  noteworthy  that  the  last  two  verses  of  the  Chronicles 
are  identical  with  the  first  two  verses  of  Ezra.  The  present 
division  of  this  continuous  historical  record  dates  from  the 
Septuagint  version,  which  was  made  two  or  three  centuries 
before  our  era. 

The  traditional  view  ascribes  the  authorship  to  Ezra; 
but  from  the  list  of  the  descendants  of  Zerubbabel  men- 
tioned in  I  Chronicles  3:  19-22,  —  the  leader  of  the  first 
body  of  captives  returning  to  Jerusalem  from  Babylon,  — 
it  seems  probable  that  the  writer  belongs  to  a  later  time. 
Some  biblical  scholars  place  the  author  as  late  as  330  B.C., 
a  date  subsequent  to  the  time  when  Alexander  had  started 
on  his  conquering  career  in  western  Asia.  At  all  events, 
it  is  perfectly  clear  that  the  book  was  written  after  the 
Babylonian  exile ;  for  it  contains  the  proclamation  of 
Cyrus  for  the  rebuilding  of  Jerusalem. 

Character  and  Sources.  —  In  the  Chronicles,  as  in  the 
other  historical  writings  of  the  ancient  Hebrews,  pros- 
perity is  represented  as  a  reward  of  righteousness,  and 
adversity  as  a  punishment  of  sin.  Accordingly,  David 
admonishes  Solomon  to  be  faithful  to  Jehovah  :  "  If  thou 
seek  Him,  He  will  be  found  of  thee ;  but  if  thou  forsake 
Him,  He  will  cast  thee  off  forever."  l  And  when  a  king 

1  i  Chron,  28:  9. 


FROM  SOLOMON   TO   THE  RESTORATION  127 

of  Judah  meets  with  disaster,  it  is  ascribed  to  the  fact 
that  he  "forsook  the  law  of  the  Lord." 

The  Chronicles  briefly  cover  the  period  extending  from 
Adam  to  the  restoration  of  the  Jews  in  Jerusalem.  The 
author  was  therefore  dependent  on  previous  and,  in  many 
cases,  ancient  records.1  He  drew  freely  from  the  earlier 
historical  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  especially  from 
Samuel  and  Kings;  but  in  addition  to  these  works,  he 
makes  mention  of  a  small  library  of  sources,  which  are 
now  unhappily  lost.  Among  these  new  sources  may  be 
mentioned  the  book  of  the  Kings  of  Israel  and  Judah 
(2  Chron.  16:  11),  Commentary  of  the  book  of  the  Kings 
(2  Chron.  24:  27),  the  book  of  Samuel  the  Seer,  the  book 
of  Nathan  the  Prophet,  the  book  of  Gad  the  Seer  (i  Chron. 
29:  29),  the  Prophecy  of  Ahijah,  and  the  Visions  of  Iddo 
the  Seer  (2  Chron.  9 :  29). 

Distinctive  Features.  —  The  books  of  Chronicles  have  a 
few  distinctive  features,  which  it  is  important  to  note. 
First  of  all,  there  are  nine  chapters  devoted  to  gene- 
alogies. These  were  taken,  as  we  are  told,  from  the  book 
of  the  Kings  of  Israel,2  and  were  no  doubt  useful,  not  only 
in  reminding  the  returning  exiles  of  the  antiquity  of  their 
race,  but  also  in  assigning  them  a  proper  place  in  the  land 
of  Canaan. 

A  second  peculiarity  is  the  prominence  given  to  the 
temple  service.  The  writer,  whoever  he  was,  appears  to 
have  been  a  priest  or  Levite,  —  a  fact  that  seems  to  have 
given  a  priestly  aim  or  bias  to  his  work.  The  whole  of 

1  "  His  belief  in  God  was  intense,  as  one  actively  governing  the  world,  punishing 
the  evil  and  rewarding  the   good,  demanding  obedience  and  worship,  but  long- 
suffering  and  gracious  to  His  people  in  spite  of  their  sin.     There  is  at  times  some- 
thing mechanical  in   His  conception,  but  it  is  strong  and  effective."  —  FRANCIS 
BROWN  in  Hastings'  "  Dictionary  of  the  Bible." 

2  I  Chron.  9:  i. 


128  AN  INTRODUCTION    TO   BIBLE  STUDY 

chapter  6  is  devoted  to  Levitical  genealogy ;  and  many 
chapters  are  given  to  the  temple  and  its  services.  In 
addition  to  this,  the  chronicler  makes  prominent  the  re- 
formatory labors  of  Jehoshaphat,  Hezekiah,  and  Josiah, 
making  mention  of  Passover  services  not  elsewhere 
referred  to. 

The  third  distinguishing  feature  of  the  books  of  Chroni- 
cles is  the  prominence  given  to  the  kingdom  of  Judah. 
The  kingdom  of  Israel  receives  only  occasional  mention, 
and  then  in  connection  with  its  rival  kingdom.  The  reigns 
of  the  good  kings  —  those  who  did  "  that  which  was  right 
in  the  sight  of  the  Lord  "  —  are  made  especially  prominent. 
Saul  is  dismissed  with  brief  notice ;  and  in  the  lengthy 
sketch  of  David  there  is  no  mention  of  his  adulterous 
crimes.  Solomon's  idolatry  is  passed  over  in  silence. 
"  The  object  of  the  writer,"  as  Dillmann  well  says,  "  was 
not  so  much  to  retell  the  story  of  Israel,  as,  from  the  rich 
historical  stores  at  his  command,  to  select  those  portions 
which  related  more  particularly  to  the  history  of  worship, 
in  order  to  demonstrate  to  his  compatriots  how  precious 
this  legacy  was,  and  how  fundamental  to  the  existence  and 
prosperity  of  the  new  state  arising  from  the  ashes  of 
the  old." 

Fourfold  Division.  —  The  books  of  Chronicles  may  be 
readily  divided  into  four  parts.  The  first  part  (chapters 
1-9)  contains  the  genealogical  lists.  The  second  part 
(chapters  10-29)  narrates  the  history  of  David,  dwelling  in 
particular  upon  his  preparation  for  the  building  of  the 
temple  and  his  arrangements  for  maintaining  its  public 
service.  The  third  part  (2  Chron.  1-9)  tells  the  history  of 
Solomon,  making  prominent  the  building  and  dedication  of 
the  temple.  The  fourth  part,  including  the  rest  of  the  book, 
is  occupied  with  the  history  of  Judah  from  the  division  of 


FROM  SOLOMON    TO   THE  RESTORATION  129 

the  kingdom  under  Rehoboam  to  the  destruction  of  Jerusa- 
lem and  Cyrus'  permission  for  the  rebuilding  of  the 
temple. 

Ezra.  —  The  books  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  which  nar- 
rate the  most  important  events  connected  with  the  resto- 
ration of  the  Jews  to  their  native  land,  formerly  constituted 
one  work.  They  are  simply  a  continuation  of  the  narra- 
tive begun  in  Chronicles,  to  which  they  bear  a  striking 
resemblance  in  style  and  spirit.  There  can  be  little  doubt 
that  all  four  books  are  the  work  of  a  single  historian  or 
compiler.  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  are  our  only  sources  for 
an  important  period  of  Jewish  history ;  and  without  the 
information  they  supply,  the  subsequent  developments  in 
the  life  of  the  Hebrew  people  would  be  unintelligible. 

The  seventy  years'  captivity  had  accomplished  one  not- 
able result.  It  permanently  cured  the  Jews  of  their  fatal 
tendency  to  idolatry.  We  hear  no  more  of  the  worship 
of  Baal  or  other  heathen  divinities ;  henceforth  they  are 
loyal  in  their  outward  observance  of  the  Mosaic  law. 

Twofold  Division.  —  The  book  of  Ezra  is  divided  into 
two  parts.  The  first  part,  consisting  of  chapters  I  to  6, 
describes  the  return  of  42,360  Jews  to  Jerusalem.  This 
movement,  led  by  Zerubbabel,  followed  a  favorable  procla- 
mation by  Cyrus  (536  B.C.).  The  rebuilding  of  the  temple, 
which  had  been  interrupted  by  a  decree  of  Artaxerxes, 
was  completed  a  little  later  under  Darius  (516  B.C.),  and 
dedicated  with  magnificent  ceremonies. 

The  second  part,  which  begins  with  chapter  7,  describes 
the  return  and  administration  of  Ezra,  who  is  character- 
ized as  "  a  ready  scribe  in  the  law  of  Moses."  It  is  sepa- 
rated from  the  events  of  the  preceding  chapter  by  about 
sixty  years.  As  a  Jew  of  zealous  piety,  Ezra  lamented 
the  intermarriages  of  his  people  with  surrounding  nations  ; 


130  AN   INTRODUCTION    TO   BIBLE  STUDY 

and  accordingly  he  started  an  agitation  that  led  to  the 
putting  away  of  "  strange  wives." 

Nehemiah.  —  The  book  of  Nehemiah  continues  the 
history  of  the  restoration  of  the  Jews  and  the  rebuilding 
of  Jerusalem.  It  is  named  after  the  pious  and  patriotic 
leader,  who  gave  up  his  honorable  post  as  cupbearer  to 
Artaxerxes  L,  King  of  Persia,  to  undertake  the  arduous 
labor  of  rebuilding  the  walls  of  the  sacred  city.  The 
events  narrated  in  this  book  took  place  some  twelve  or 
fourteen  years  after  the  mission  of  Ezra. 

Nehemiah  rallied  the  rulers  of  the  Jews  at  Jerusalem  to 
a  cordial  cooperation.  Though  he  was  opposed  by  en- 
vious enemies,  he  heroically  persisted  in  his  work.  For 
fear  of  attack,  his  workmen  wielded  the  trowel  with  their 
swords  girded  at  their  sides.  He  persuaded  the  wealthy 
citizens  of  Jerusalem  to  surrender  their  claims  against  their 
poorer  brethren,  and  thus  deliver  them  from  the  oppression 
of  debt.  In  fifty-two  days  he  accomplished  the  great  work 
of  restoring  the  fallen  walls  of  the  city. 

The  next  important  event  narrated  in  Nehemiah 
(chapters  8-10)  is  the  solemn  reading  of  the  law  by  Ezra. 
The  people  recognized  their  sin  ;  and  "  entered  into  a  curse, 
and  into  an  oath,  to  walk  in  God's  law,  and  to  observe  and 
do  all  the  commandments  of  the  Lord  our  Lord,  and  His 
judgments  and  His  statutes." l  Afterwards  Nehemiah 
instituted  various  religious  and  social  reforms,  and  gave 
to  revived  Judaism  the  zealous  and  exclusive  spirit  which 
it  was  long  to  retain. 

Esther. — The  book  of  Esther  possesses  the  interest  of 
a  historical  romance.  The  author  is  unknown ;  but  the 
incidents,  which  are  drawn  in  part  at  least  from  the 
Chronicles  of  the  Kings  of  Media  and  Persia,2  are  handled 

1  Neh.  10 :  29.  2  Esther  10 :  2. 


FROM  SOLOMON   TO   THE  RESTORATION  131 

with  consummate  art.  When  Racine  came  to  fashion  the 
story  into  a  masterful  drama,  he  had  no  occasion  to  change 
its  essential  features  or  arrangement.  Esther  is  at  once  a 
queenly  and  heroic  character.1 

The  facts  narrated  in  Esther  may  be  regarded  as  an 
episode  in  Hebrew  history.  The  evident  purpose  of  the 
book  is  to  explain  the  origin  of  the  Jewish  feast  of  Purim. 
The  scene  is  at  Susa,  the  capital  of  Persia.  Esther,  a 
Jewish  maiden  of  fascinating  personality,  was  selected  as 
queen  in  place  of  Vashti,  whom  the  wilful  and  despotic 
Ahasuerus  had  deposed  for  disobeying  the  royal  mandate. 
In  her  exalted  position,  the  new  queen  overthrew  the 
prime  minister,  Haman,  whose  wicked  plottings  had  aimed 
at  the  destruction  of  the  Jews  throughout  the  vast  extent 
of  the  Persian  empire.  It  was  in  commemoration  of  the 
escape  of  the  Jews  from  this  threatened  destruction  that 
the  feast  of  Purim  was  instituted. 

Peculiar  Features.  —  In  several  respects  Esther  differs 
from  every  other  book  in  the  Old  Testament.  We  miss 
that  strong  sense  of  the  divine  agency  which  is  elsewhere 
usually  made  so  prominent.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that 
the  name  of  God  is  not  once  mentioned.  Moreover,  it 
presents  the  Jewish  character  in  an  unfavorable  light ;  for 
the  decree  of  Mordecai,  as  well  as  the  slaughter  by  the 
Jews,  breathes  a  spirit  of  national  hate  and  revenge.  Yet 
a  characteristic  Hebrew  faith  underlies  the  work ;  for, 
without  specifically  stating  the  fact,  the  book  undoubtedly 
presents  the  deliverance  of  the  Jews  as  the  act  of  a  favor- 
ing Providence. 

1  "  One  has,  it  seems  to  me,  but  to  read  this  story  to  feel  the  life  of  a  romance 
in  it.  The  contrasted  characters  —  the  sensual  monarch,  the  unscrupulous  min- 
ister, the  proud  Puritan,  the  brave  woman,  brave  with  true  womanly  courage  —  are 
drawn  in  few  lines,  but  with  marvellous  skill."  —  LYMAN  ABBOTT,  "  Life  and 
Literature  of  the  Ancient  Hebrews,"  p.  191. 


132  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

Historic  Interest.  —  The  book  is  not  without  a  general 
historical  interest.  Ahasuerus,  the  king  of  Persia,  is 
usually  identified  with  Xerxes  (485-465  B.C.);  and  the 
capricious  and  self-indulgent  temper  of  the  monarch,  as 
depicted  in  Esther,  corresponds  to  his  character  as  pre- 
sented in  Herodotus.  The  description  of  Persian  customs 
is  regarded  as  accurate.  The  Jews  who  had  been  carried 
away  to  the  East  by  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  conquerors 
—  most  of  whom  never  returned  to  Canaan  —  are  repre- 
sented as  retaining  their  distinctive  national  customs  and 
exclusiveness.  "  There  is  a  certain  people,"  so  Haman 
tells  Ahasuerus,  "  scattered  abroad  and  dispersed  among 
the  people  in  all  the  provinces  of  thy  kingdom  ;  and  their 
laws  are  diverse  from  all  people ;  neither  keep  they  the 
king's  law."  1 

The  book  of  Esther  has  given  rise  to  much  discussion. 
There  are  some  biblical  scholars  who  question  its  right  to 
a  place  in  the  sacred  canon.  But  the  book  has  always 
been  held  in  high  honor  by  the  Jews ;  and  for  its  literary 
art  and  general  historic  interest,  as  well  as  for  its  underly- 
ing religious  faith,  we  may  well  be  thankful  that  it  has 
been  retained  in  the  Old  Testament  collection  of  writings. 


RESEARCH   WORK 
i  AND  2  KINGS 

The  circumstances  of  Solomon's  appointment  as  king,  I  Kings  i. 

The  final  charge  and  death  of  David,  i  Kings  2:1-11. 

The  punishment  of  various  evil-doers,  i  Kings  2  :  12-46. 

The  celebrated  choice  of  Solomon,  i  Kings  3  :  5-15. 

His  famous  judgment  between  two  women,  i  Kings  3  :  16-28. 

The  magnificent  court  of  Solomon,  i  Kings  4. 

i  Esther  3:8. 


FROM  SOLOMON   TO   THE   RESTORATION  133 

His  relations  with  Hiram  of  Tyre,  i  Kings  5. 

The  building  of  the  temple,  i  Kings  6. 

Other  works  of  architecture,  i  Kings  7. 

The  formal  dedication  of  the  temple,  i  Kings  8. 

The  visit  of  the  queen  of  Sheba,  i  Kings  10. 

The  closing  years  of  Solomon's  reign,  i  Kings  n. 

Revolt  of  the  ten  tribes  under  Jeroboam,  i  Kings  12. 

Reign  of  Jeroboam,  i  Kings  13,  14. 

The  story  of  Elijah,  I  Kings  17-19;  2  Kings  i. 

The  criminal  seizure  of  Naboth's  vineyard,  i  Kings  21. 

The  story  of  Elisha,  2  Kings  1-9. 

The  healing  of  Naaman,  the  leper,  2  Kings  5. 

Destruction  of  Baal  worshippers  by  Jehu,  2  Kings  10:  18-28. 

The  wicked  reign  of  Athaliah,  2  Kings  1 1 . 

Overthrow  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  2  Kings  17. 

Notable  reign  of  Hezekiah,  2  Kings  18-20. 

Finding  the  book  of  the  law,  2  Kings  22. 

Religious  reform  under  Josiah,  2  Kings  23. 

The  overthrow  of  Jerusalem,  2  Kings  24,  25. 

i  AND  2  CHRONICLES 

Various  genealogies,  i  Chron.  1-9. 

A  brief  account  of  Saul,  i  Chron.  10. 

The  career  of  David,  i  Chron.  11-22. 

Elaborate  provision  for  the  temple  services,  i  Chron.  23-26. 

Solomon's  choice  of  wisdom,  2  Chron.  2. 

The  construction  of  the  temple,  2  Chron.  2,  3. 

Solomon's  prayer  at  the  dedication,  2  Chron.  6 : 12-42. 

Other  religious  ceremonies,  2  Chron.  7. 

Visit  of  the  queen  of  Sheba,  2  Chron.  9  :  1-12. 

Revolt  of  the  ten  tribes,  2  Chron.  10. 

Reign  of  Rehoboam,  2  Chron.  n,  12. 

Reign  and  reforms  of  Asa,  2  Chron.  15,  16. 

Righteous  reign  of  Jehoshaphat,  2  Chron.  17-20. 

The  cruelty  and  death  of  Athaliah,  2  Chron.  22,  23. 

The  religious  reforms  of  Hezekiah,  2  Chron.  29-31. 

His  relations  with  Sennacherib,  2  Chron.  32. 

The  upright  reign  of  Josiah,  2  Chron.  34,  35. 

The  fall  of  Jerusalem,  2  Chron.  36. 


134  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

EZRA 

The  proclamation  of  Cyrus  and  its  results,  Ezra  I,  2. 

The  rebuilding  of  the  temple,  Ezra  3. 

Opposition  and  delay,  Ezra  4. 

The  completion  of  the  temple,  Ezra  5,  6. 

Ezra's  visit  to  Jerusalem,  Ezra  7,  8. 

Religious  reforms  inaugurated  by  Ezra,  Ezra  9,  10. 

NEHEMIAH 

Nehemiah's  removal  to  Jerusalem,  Neh.  i,  2. 

The  rebuilding  of  the  walls,  Neh.  3,  4. 

A  social  reform  relieving  the  poor,  Neh.  5. 

The  plottings  of  enemies,  Neh.  6. 

A  religious  revival,  Neh.  8,  9. 

Distribution  of  the  returning  Jews,  Neh.  II. 

Religious  reforms,  Neh.  13. 

ESTHER 

The  feast  of  Ahasuerus  or  Xerxes,  Esther  i. 
The  Jewish  maiden  chosen  queen,  Esther  2. 
The  vengeful  decree  obtained  by  Haman,  Esther  3. 
The  queen  agrees  to  attempt  a  rescue,  Esther  4. 
The  king  and  Haman  at  a  banquet,  Esther  5. 
The  reward  of  Mordecai,  Esther  6. 
Haman  hanged  on  his  own  gallows,  Esther  7. 
The  Jews  defend  themselves,  Esther  8,  9. 
Institution  of  the  feast  of  Purim,  Esther  9  :  20-32. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

STUDIES    IN    THE    POETICAL    BOOKS    OF   JOB    AND    PSALMS 

Introduction. — The  principle  of  Hebrew  poetry,  which 
is  found  in  a  varied  parallelism,  has  been  considered  in  a 
previous  chapter.  We  now  enter  upon  a  study  of  the  dis- 
tinctly poetical  books,  which  include  Job,  Psalms,  Prov- 
erbs, Ecclesiastes,  and  the  Song  of  Solomon.  The  ancient 
Hebrew  race  did  not  produce  a  great  epic.  It  did  not 
create  a  theatre  for  the  representation  of  dramatic  master- 
pieces ;  yet  it  produced  a  moral  drama  that  deserves  to  be 
compared  with  the  greatest  literary  productions  of  antiq- 
uity. Its  didactic  poetry  embodies  deep  practical  wis- 
dom, while  its  lyrical  verse  is  to-day  a  source  of  delight 
and  spiritual  strength  to  multitudes  in  Europe  and  America. 

The  poetic  literature  of  the  ancient  Hebrews  reveals  to 
us  a  new  aspect  of  their  life  and  culture.  For  the  most 
part  their  poetry  is  of  a  deep  religious  tone;  yet  the  re- 
ligion embodied  in  it  is  chiefly  spiritual.  In  place  of 
the  external  and  ritual  ceremonies  of  the  tabernacle  and 
temple,  we  find  the  soul  of  the  sacred  poet  standing  in 
close  personal  relations  with  his  Maker.  Without  the  in- 
tervention of  a  mediating  priesthood,  he  boldly  says,  as  in 
the  23d  Psalm :  "  The  Lord  is  my  shepherd  ;  I  shall  not 
want.  He  maketh  me  to  lie  down  in  green  pastures ;  He 
leadeth  me  beside  the  still  waters." 

Furthermore,  the  literary  culture  and  art  exhibited  in 
the  poetry  of  the  Old  Testament  is  surprising.  Its  sus- 
tained excellence  of  thought  and  its  admirable  artistic 
form  must  be  regarded  as  the  fruitage  of  a  long  period  of 


136  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

intellectual  development.  It  was  no  sudden  growth ;  it 
sprang  from  a  vigorous  culture  that  was  rooted  for  cen- 
turies in  Babylonian  and  Egyptian  civilization. 

The  Book  of  Job.  —  The  book  of  Job,  though  not  intended 
for  representation  on  the  stage,  is  nevertheless  a  dramatic 
poem.  It  has  its  dramatis  per s once  ;  namely,  the  patriarch 
hero  after  whom  the  work  is  named,  his  three  well-meaning 
but  narrow-minded  friends,  Eliphaz,  Bildad,  and  Zophar ; 
the  young,  gifted,  and  irrepressible  Elihu ;  and  last  of  all 
the  Lord  Himself,  who  sublimely  speaks  from  the  midst  of 
a  whirlwind.  In  place  of  outward  action,  we  have  the  move- 
ment of  thought,  and  the  excitement  and  conflict  of  de- 
bate. 

The  book  is  devoted  to  a  discussion  of  the  great  prob- 
lem of  human  suffering  in  its  relation  to  God's  government 
of  the  world.  We  are  constantly  astonished  at  the  sweep 
of  knowledge,  particularly  of  natural  phenomena,  which 
the  speakers  in  turn  display.  The  drama  is  recognized  by 
the  ablest  critics  as  a  masterpiece  of  human  genius.1  Car- 
lyle,  in  characteristic  phrase,  calls  it  "  a  noble  book ;  all 
men's  book!  It  is  our  first,  oldest  statement  of  the  never 
ending  problem,  —  man's  destiny,  and  God's  ways  with  him 
here  in  this  earth.  And  all  in  such  free,  flowing  outlines ; 
grand  in  its  sincerity,  in  its  simplicity ;  in  its  epic  melody, 
and  repose  of  reconcilement."  2 

General  Outline.  —  Though  there  are  minor  points  of  dif- 
ficulty in  the  arrangement  of  the  book,  its  general  plan  is 
very  simple.  It  consists  of  five  parts.as  follows  :  — 

1 "  Job,  like  Spenser,  should  be  the  poet  of  poets ;  but  though  Goethe  has  imitated 
him  in  royal  fashion,  and  here  and  there  other  poets  such  as  Dante  may  offer  allu- 
sions, yet  Milton  is  the  only  poet  who  seems  to  have  absorbed  Job.  "  Paradise  Re- 
gained ",is  in  both  form  and  contents  a  free  imitation  of  the  book  of  Job." — T.  K. 
CHEYNE,  "Job  and  Solomon  ;  or,  the  Wisdom  of  the  Old  Testament,"  p.  112. 

2  Carlyle,  "  Heroes  and  Hero- Worship,"  Sect.  2. 


POETICAL  BOOKS  OF  JOB   AND  PSALMS  137 

1.  The  prologue  in  prose  (chapters  i,  2). 

2.  The   debate  of  Job  and  his  three  friends  in  poetic 
form  (chapters  3-3 1 ) .    This  discussion  is  divided  into  three 
rounds  or  cycles  (chapters  3-14;   15-21  ;  22-31). 

3.  The  interjected  discourses  of  Elihu  in  poetic  form 
(chapters  32-3?). 

4.  The  discourses  of  Jehovah  in  poetic  form  (chapters 
38-42). 

5.  The  epilogue  in  prose,  recounting  the   subsequent 
prosperity  of  Job. 

In  the  prologue,  the  hero,  Job,  is  presented  as  a  man  of 
extraordinary  piety,  whose  faithfulness  is  commended  by 
Jehovah  Himself.  When  Satan,  in  a  celestial  council,  sneer- 
ingly  suggests  that  Job's  piety  springs  from  a  calculating 
selfishness,  he  receives  permission  of  the  Lord  to  deprive 
the  patriarch  of  prosperity  and  happiness.  The  response 
of  the  heroic  saint  to  the  swift  succession  of  disasters  that 
rob  him  of  his  riches  and  his  children  is  found  in  the  sub- 
lime words  of  resignation,  "  The  Lord  gave,  and  the  Lord 
hath  taken  away;  blessed  be  the  name  of  the  Lord." 

At  the  second  celestial  gathering,  Satan  receives  per- 
mission to  tempt  the  steadfast  patriarch  further  through 
physical  suffering.  Accordingly,  he  "  smote  Job  with  sore 
boils  from  the  sole  of  his  foot  unto  his  crown."  '  The  saint 
thus  finds  himself  suddenly  plunged  into  the  depths  of 
misery.  But  when  he  is  tempted  by  his  sceptical  wife  to 
renounce  his  religious  faith,  the  strong-hearted  hero  again 
replies,  "  What  ?  shall  we  receive  good  at  the  hand  of  God, 
and  shall  we  not  receive  evil  ?  " 

Visit  of  his  Friends. — Though  clinging  to  his  faith  in 
God,  Job  is  nevertheless  overwhelmed  with  suffering.  In 
his  deep  wretchedness,  he  curses  the  day  he  was  born.  In 
his  despair  he  cries  out,  — 


138  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO   BIBLE  STUDY 

"Wherefore  is  light  given  to  him  that  is  in  misery, 
And  life  unto  the  bitter  in  soul  ?  " 

—  Ch.  3  :  20. 

To  this  cry  of  anguish,  which  touches  the  mystery  of 
human  suffering  and  God's  government  of  the  world,  Eli- 
phaz,  with  a  delicate  Oriental  courtesy,  presents  the  'com- 
mon Hebrew  view  of  retributive  punishment.  According 
to  this  view,  with  which  we  are  already  familiar,  suffering 
is  simply  a  punishment  for  sin.  "  Remember,"  says  Eli- 
phaz,  - 

"  Remember,  I  pray  thee,  who  ever  perished  being  innocent  ? 
Or  where  were  the  upright  cut  off  ? 
According  as  I  have  seen,  they  that  plough  iniquity, 
And  sow  trouble,  reap  the  same. 
By  the  breath  of  God  they  perish, 
And  by  the  blast  of  His  anger  are  they  consumed." 

-Ch.  4:7-9. 

The  following  discourses  of  Bildad  and  Zophar  pursue 
the  same 'line  of  thought.  This  view  of  human  suffering, 
though  it  contains  an  element  of  truth,  is  by  no  means  an 
adequate  explanation  of  the  sorrow  of  the  world,  and  in 
the  light  of  the  prologue  we  see  that  it  has  no  application 
to  Job.  Accordingly  the  sufferer  stoutly  maintains  his  in- 
nocence, and  in  his  great  perplexity  of  soul  is  ready  boldly 
to  question  God  Himself  :  — 

"  I  will  say  unto  God,  Do  not  condemn  me ; 
Show  me  wherefore  Thou  contendest  with  me. 
Is  it  good  unto  Thee  that  Thou  shouldest  oppress, 
That  Thou  shouldest  despise  the  work  of  Thine  hands, 
And  shine  upon  the  counsel  of  the  wicked  ?  " 

—  Ch.  10  :  2,  3. 


POETICAL  BOOKS  OF  JOB   AND  PSALMS  139 

It  is  not  difficult  for  Job  to  point  out  the  fallacy  of  his 
friends.  When  the  appeal  is  made  to  experience,  it  is  seen 
that  the  wicked,  instead  of  being  outwardly  punished,  fre- 
quently continue  in  the  enjoyment  of  prosperity  to  the  end 
of  their  days.  Accordingly  he  asks,  — 

"  Wherefore  do  the  wicked  live, 
Become  old,  yea,  wax  mighty  in  power? 
Their  seed  is  established  with  them  in  their  sight, 
And  their  offspring  before  their  eyes. 
Their  houses  are  safe  from  fear, 
Neither  is  the  rod  of  God  upon  them." 

—  Ch.  21  :  7-9. 

But  the  friends  of  Job  refused  to  be  convinced;  and  ob- 
stinately maintaining  their  position,  they  proceed  to  charge 
him  with  various  iniquities  :  — 

"  Is  not  thy  wickedness  great  ? 
Neither  is  there  any  end  to  thine  iniquities. 
For  thou  hast  taken  pledges  of  thy  brother  for  nought, 
And  stripped  the  naked  of  their  clothing. 
Thou  hast  not  given  water  to  the  weary  to  drink, 
And  thou  hast  withholden  bread  from  the  hungry." 

—  Ch.  22:5-7. 

Elihu's  Discourses.  —  All  this,  as  we  know  from  the  pro- 
logue, is  wide  of  the  mark.  In  place  of  confession  and 
repentance,  to  which  Job  is  urged  by  his  friends,  he  re- 
fuses to  compromise,  in  any  way,  his  conscious  integrity  of 
soul:  — 

"  My  righteousness  I  hold  fast,  and  will  not  let  it  go  : 
My  heart  shall  not  reproach  me  so  long  as  I  live." 

—  Ch.  27  :  6. 

In  chapters  29  and  30,  he  presents  a  beautiful  and  touch- 
ing contrast  between  his  former  prosperity,  when  his  chil- 


140  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

dren  were  about  him,  and  his  present  misery,  when  he  has 
become  a  byword.  In  his  heart  there  is  no  stubbornness 
of  pride.  He  expresses  a  willingness,  if  he  has  sinned,  to 
bear  his  punishment :  — 

"  If  my  land  cry  out  against  me, 
And  the  furrows  thereof  weep  together ; 
If  I  have  eaten  the  fruits  thereof  without  money, 
Or  have  caused  the  owners  thereof  to  lose  their  life : 
Let  thistles  grow  instead  of  wheat, 
And  cockle  instead  of  barley." 

—  Ch.  31:38-40. 

At  this  point,  when  Eliphaz,  Bildad,  and  Zophar  are 
silenced,  the  young  Elihu,  who  has  listened  to  the  debate 
with  passionate  interest,  takes  up  the  discourse.  Against 
Job  he  reaffirms  the  retributive  relation  between  sin  and 
suffering.  This  relation  seems  to  him  to  follow  necessarily 
from  the  justice  of  God  :  — 

"  Far  be  it  from  God,  that  He  should  do  wickedness  ; 
And  from  the  Almighty,  that  He  should  commit  iniquity. 
For  the  work  of  a  man  shall  He  render  unto  him, 
And  cause  every  man  to  find  according  to  his  ways." 

—  Ch.  34:  10,  ii. 

But  Elihu  does  not  stop  with  this  traditional  view.  He 
emphasizes  another  aspect  of  human  suffering,  namely,  its 
disciplinary  or  redemptive  character.  Apart  from  its  puni- 
tive purpose,  suffering  is  often  mercifully  intended,  so  he 
rightly  argues,  to  reclaim  the  wicked  from  their  iniquity  :  — 

"  Then  He  showeth  them  their  work, 
And  their  transgressions,  that  they  have  behaved  themselves 

proudly. 

He  openeth  also  their  ear  to  instruction, 
And  commandeth  that  they  return  from  iniquity. 


POETICAL  BOOKS  OF  JOB   AND   PSALMS  141 

If  they  hearken  and  serve  Him, 

They  shall  spend  their  days  in  prosperity, 

And  their  years  in  pleasures. 

But  if  they  hearken  not,  they  shall  perish  by  the  sword, 

And  they  shall  die  without  knowledge." 

—  Ch.  36:  9-12. 

Voice  from  the  Whirlwind.  —  The  mystery  of  suffering 
in  human  life,  whatever  light  may  have  been  thrown  upon 
it,  is  not  yet  solved.  Then  the  Lord  speaks  out  of  the 
whirlwind,  and  by  a  marvellous  series  of  questions  about 
the  universe  exhibits  the  majesty  of  divine  goodness  and 
power,  and  the  insufficiency  of  human  wisdom  to  fathom  the 
ways  of  Providence.  In  many  particulars  the  ways  of  God 
are  shown  to  be  inscrutable ;  and  in  the  presence  of 
mystery  on  every  hand,  it  is  vain  for  man  to  expect  to 
fathom,  in  all  its  extent,  the  government  of  the  Almighty. 
And  where  the  short  plummet  of  human  penetration  fails 
to  sound  the  mysteries  of  God,  a  supreme  faith  in  His 
goodness  and  mercy  must  come  to  our  aid. 

In  the  epilogue,  the  Lord  condemns  Eliphaz  and  his  two 
companions,  and  commends  the  uprightness  of  Job.  The 
trial  of  the  faithful  patriarch  was  followed  by  a  double 
measure  of  prosperity.  "  And  after  this  Job  lived  an  hun- 
dred and  forty  years,  and  saw  his  sons,  and  his  sons'  sons, 
even  four  generations." 

Various  Lessons.  —  This  brief  analysis  leaves  many  points 
of  interest  untouched.  In  his  sore  trial  Job  does  not  fully 
grasp  the  truth  of  a  future  life.  For  a  time  he  surrenders 
this  belief  entirely  :  — 

"  As  the  waters  fail  from  the  sea, 
And  the  river  decayeth  and  drieth  up ; 
So  man  lieth  down  and  riseth  not : 
Till  the  heavens  be  no  more,  they  shall  not  awake, 
Nor  be  roused  out  of  their  sleep." 

—  Ch.  14:  ii,  12, 


142 


AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 


But  the  strong-souled  patriarch  cannot  rest  in  this 
gloomy  view  ;  and  later  in  the  argument,  there  is  a  splendid 
outburst  of  faith  which  lays  hold  for  a  moment  on  immor- 
tality :  — 

"  But  I  know  that  my  vindicator  liveth, 
And  that  He  shall  stand  up  at  the  last  upon  the  earth : 
And  after  my  skin  hath  been  thus  destroyed, 
Yet  without  my  flesh  shall  I  see  God  ; 
Whom  I  shall  see  for  myself, 
And  mine  eyes  shall  behold,  and  not  another." 

—  Ch.  19:  25-27. 

In  the  twenty-eighth  chapter  there  is  a  splendid  discus- 
sion of  wisdom.  Though  it  is  hid  "  from  the  eyes  of  all 
living,"  — 

11  God  understandeth  the  way  thereof, 
And  He  knoweth  the  place  thereof. 
For  He  looketh  to  the  ends  of  the  earth, 
And  seeth  under  the  whole  heaven ; 
To  make  a  weight  for  the  wind ; 
Yea,  He  meteth  out  the  waters  by  measure. 
And  unto  man  He  said, 
Behold,  the  fear  of  the  Lord,  that  is  wisdom; 
And  to  depart  from  evil  is  understanding." 

Apart  from  interesting  incidental  discussion  and  the  main 
problem  of  the  poem,  which  is  not  clearly  and  fully  solved, 
the  book  of  Job  is  rich  in  its  spiritual  instruction.  It 
teaches  that  the  suffering  of  the  righteous  man  has  its 
origin  in  the  councils  of  Heaven,  and  that  it  may  come,  not 
as  a  penal  retribution,  but  as  a  beneficent  test  of  character. 
It  shows  us,  in  the  face  of  Satanic  cynicism,  that  there  is 
such  a  thing  as  disinterested  piety  ;  for  Job,  notwithstand- 
ing his  overwhelming  agony  of  body  and  soul,  still  remains 
unshaken  in  his  integrity  and  loyal  devotion  to  God.  It 

X 


POETICAL   BOOKS  OF  JOB   AND  PSALMS  143 

sets  forth  an  exalted  conception  of  God,  who,  instead  of  a 
petty  dispenser  of  rewards  and  punishments,  is  presented 
in  the  grandeur  of  a  wise  and  beneficent  ruler  of  a  bound- 
less' universe.  It  thus  rises  above  the  narrowness  which 
too  often  characterized  the  ancient  Hebrew  conception  of 
Jehovah. 

Locality  and  Date.  —  The  land  of  Uz,  which  is  named  as 
the  home  of  Job,  was  probably  in  northern  Arabia.  The 
hero  was  an  Arabian  emir  or  chieftain,  who  was  distin- 
guished in  Hebrew  tradition  for  his  upright  character. 
Accordingly  we  find  Ezekiel  referring  to  "  Noah,  Daniel, 
and  Job  "  as  preeminent  in  righteousness.1  These  facts 
give  the  drama  a  historic  foundation. 

Neither  the  date  nor  the  authorship  of  the  poem  can  be 
definitely  fixed.  It  was  once  thought  to  be  the  oldest  book  in 
the  Bible  ;  and  it  is  evident  that  the  Arabian  hero  belongs 
to  the  patriarchal  period.  This  is  shown  by  the  extraordi- 
nary age  to  which  he  is  said  to  have  attained. 

But  the  patriarchal  character  of  the  central  figure  does 
not  prove  the  contemporary  authorship  of  the  drama. 
Shakespeare  wrote  his  Hamlet  and  Macbeth  long  after  the 
age  of  those  well-known  characters.  A  little  reflection  will 
show  that  the  book  of  Job  belongs  to  the  later  period  of 
Jewish  development.  The  central  problem  of  the  poem 
could  hardly  have  engaged  such  serious  attention  during 
the  troublous  times  of  the  conquest  or  the  lawless  period  of 
the  Judges.  Its  finished  literary  character  and  its  breadth 
of  thought  place  the  poem  in  the  post-exilic  age.  It  prob- 
ably dates  from  400  B.C. 

The  Psalms.  —  In  the  book  of  Psalms  we  have  a  large 
collection  of  the  lyric  poetry  of  the  ancient  Hebrews.  Its 
one  hundred  and  fifty  psalms  or  hymns  reach  a  height  of 

1  Ez.  14 : 14. 


144  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

lyrical  attainment  unsurpassed  in  antiquity.  Lyric  poetry 
gives  intense  expression  to  thought  and  emotion;  and  in 
the  Psalms — the  hymn-book  of  the  Hebrews  —  there 
is  a  marvellous  utterance  of  all  the  varied  religious 
feelings. 

The  lyric  poetry  of  Israel  is  unlike  that  of  Greece  'and 
Rome ;  for,  in  place  of  martial  verse  and  songs  of  love,  it 
is  devoted  to  religion.  In  this  great  sphere  of  human 
thought  and  feeling,  the  Psalms  have  never  been  sur- 
passed or  superseded ;  and  to-day,  in  all  Christian  lands, 
they  are  employed  to  voice  the  praises,  prayers,  and 
thanksgiving  of  reverent  spirits.  The  Psalter  is  a  spir- 
itual treasury  with  which  the  world  could  ill  afford  to 
dispense. 

Growth.  —  As  the  Psalms  were  composed  at  intervals 
throughout  Hebrew  history,  the  present  collection  is  the 
result  of  an  age-long  growth.  The  QOth  Psalm  is  as- 
cribed to  Moses,  and  the  13/th  clearly  belongs  to  the 
period  of  the  captivity ;  thus  the  book  of  Psalms  is  seen  to 
represent  the  fruitage  of  Hebrew  inspiration  for  nearly  a 
thousandjrears. 

In  the  Revised  Version  the  collection  is  divided  into 
five  books,  each  of  which,  as  will  be  found  on  examina- 
tion, concludes  with  a  doxology.  The  first  book  includes 
Psalms  1-41  ;  the  second,  Psalms  42-72;  the  third,  Psalms 
73-89;  the  fourth,  Psalms  90-106;  the  fifth,  Psalms  107- 
150.  These  books  were  arranged  at  different  times  and 
by  different  editors  or  compilers.  This  is  proved  by  the 
repetition  of  psalms,1  and  by  the  different  words  used  to 
designate  the  Supreme  Being.  In  the  first,  fourth,  and 
fifth  books  God  is  called  Jehovah  in  the  Hebrew ;  in  the 
second  and  third,  Elohim. 

i  Compare  Ps.  53  with  Ps.  14,  and  Ps.  70  with  Ps.  40 : 13-17. 


Y-i 


POETICAL  BOOKS  OF  JOB   AND  PSALMS  145 

Titles.  —  It  will  be  observed  that  most  of  the  Psalms 
are  provided  with  titles,  which  contain  various  items  of 
information.  For  one  thing,  they  usually  indicate  author- 
ship. Accordingly,  seventy-three  psalms  are  assigned  to 
David,  two  to  Solomon,  twelve  to  Asaph,  eleven  to  the 
sons  of  Korah,  one  to  Moses,  one  to  Heman  the  Ezrahite, 
and  one  to  Ethan  the  Ezrahite.  Thirty-four  are  without 
any  indication  of  authorship,  and  hence  are  known  among 
the  Jews  as  "orphans." 

But  unfortunately  the  question  of  authorship  is  not  so 
easily  settled.  The  titles  do  not  form  a  part  of  the  origi- 
nal Psalms,  but  are  a  later  and,  as  many  believe,  an  un- 
trustworthy addition.  For  this  reason  modern  scholarship 
has  greatly  reduced  the  number  of  Psalms  to  be  ascribed 
to  David.  However,  the  uncertain  question  of  author- 
ship does  not  affect  the  intrinsic  excellence  of  the 
Psalms. 

Musical  Directions.  —  The  titles  frequently  give  direc- 
tions for  the  musical  rendering  of  the  Psalms.  In  some 
cases  the  Hebrew  is  obscure,  and  in  the  Revised  Version 
is  left  untranslated.  Sometimes  the  title  indicates  the 
nature  of  the  instruments  that  are  to  accompany  the  vocal 
rendition  of  the  Psalm.  The  fourth  Psalm,  for  example, 
is  to  be  accompanied  by  stringed  instruments,  and  the 
fifth  by  wind-instruments.  In  other  cases,  as  in  the  ninth 
Psalm,  the  title  seems  to  indicate  the  melody  or  chant  to 
be  used. 

The  musical  rendering  of  the  Psalms  in  connection  with 
the  tabernacle  and  temple  service  must  have  been  often 
elaborate  and  impressive.  From  the  record  in  I  Chroni- 
cles, we  have  already  learned  of  the  extensive  arrange- 
ments made  by  David  for  bringing  the  ark  from  the  house 
of  Obed-edom  to  Jerusalem,  and  for  the  later  services  of  the 


146  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

temple.  The  great  choir  was  supported  by  a  large  orches- 
tra of  instruments,  consisting  of  psalteries,  and  harps,  and 
cymbals,  and  trumpets. 

A  Processional  Hymn.  —  It  has  been  supposed  that  the 
24th  Psalm  was  used  as  a  kind  of  processional  hymn 
when  the  ark  was  brought  to  Jerusalem.  Its  liturgical  char- 
acter is  sufficiently  obvious.  As  the  great  procession,  led 
by  King  David  in  a  robe  of  white  linen,  reached  the  city, 
it  seems  to  have  paused  outside  the  massive  and  ancient 
gates.  Suddenly  the  full  choir  and  orchestra  broke  forth 
in  a  united  ascription  of  praise  to  the  Almighty :  — 

"  The  earth  is  the  Lord's,  and  the  fulness  thereof; 
The  world,  and  they  that  dwell  therein. 
For  He  hath  founded  it  upon  the  seas, 
And  established  it  upon  the  floods." 

After  this  splendid  outburst  in  full  symphony,  a  powerful 
priestly  voice  continued  as  a  solo  :  — 

"Who  shall  ascend  into  the  hill  of  the  Lord? 
And  who  shall  stand  in  His  holy  place?  " 

To  this  solemn  question  another  priestly  voice  replies  :  — 

"  He  that  hath  clean  hands,  and  a  pure  heart ; 
Who  hath  not  lifted  up  his  soul  unto  vanity, 
And  hath  not  sworn  deceitfully. 
He  shall  receive  a  blessing  from  the  Lord, 
And  righteousness  from  the  God  of  his  salvation.1' 

This  solo  is  followed  by  the  full  symphony  of  singers  and 
instruments,  whose  harmonies,  like  the  voice  of  many 
waters,  fill  the  mountain  and  valley  :  - 

"  This  is  the  generation  of  them  that  seek  after  Him, 
That  seek  Thy  face,  O  God  of  Jacob." 


POETICAL  BOOKS  OF  JOB   AND  PSALMS  147 

For  a  moment  there  is  an  impressive  silence  indicated  by 
the  word  Selah.  Then  the  full  choir,  conscious  of  its 
mighty  mission  in  bringing  the  ark  of  the  Lord  to  the 
capital  of  the  kingdom,  turns  to  the  closed  and  barred 
gates  of  the  city  :  — 

"  Lift  up  your  heads,  O  ye  gates ; 
And  be  ye  lifted  up,  ye  everlasting  doors : 
And  the  King  of  glory  shall  come  in." 

The  warden  stationed  on  the  wall  above  the  gates  an- 
swers in  loud  antiphony :  — 

"  Who  is  the  King  of  glory?  " 
And  the  full  chorus  responds  :  — 

"  The  Lord  strong  and  mighty, 
The  Lord  mighty  in  battle." 

But  the  watchword  has  not  yet  been  given,  and  the  gates 
remain  closed.  Once  more  the  full  choir  sings  :  — 

"  Lift  up  your  heads,  O  ye  gates  ; 
Yea,  lift  them  up,  ye  everlasting  doors  : 
And  the  King  of  glory  shall  come  in." 

Again  the  warden  demands  :  — 

"  Who  is  this  King  of  glory?" 
And  the  full  choir  triumphantly  replies :  — 

"THE  LORD  OF  HOSTS 
He  is  the  King  of  glory." 

This  is  the  mighty  watchword  of  the  day  ;  and  instantly 
the  gates  are  flung  open  wide,  and  the  long  procession  moves 
with  its  sacred  charge  to  the  doors  of  the  tabernacle. 


148  ,4 AT   INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

Historic  Setting.  —  It  is  always  interesting  to  know  the 
occasion  that  called  forth  some  admirable  literary  pro- 
duction, and  often  this  knowledge  enables  us  to  enter  more 
fully  into  its  spirit.  In  a  number  of  cases  the  titles  of  the 
Psalms  indicate  the  occasion  of  the  poem,  and  by  this  his- 
toric setting  impart  to  them  a  new  depth  of  meaning.  If 
we  think  of  the  QOth  Psalm,  for  example,  as  written  by 
Moses  near  the  close  of  the  forty  years'  wandering  in 
the  wilderness,  we  can  better  understand  the  gloomy  view 
of  life  it  presents.  After  having  seen  an  entire  generation 
pass  away  in  the  midst  of  the  hopeless  hardships  of  the 
wilderness,  it  was  but  natural  for  the  great  leader,  in  an  hour 
of  depression,  to  say  :  — 

"  For  all  our  days  are  passed  away  in  Thy  wrath : 
We  bring  our  years  to  an  end  as  a  tale  that  is  told. 
The  days  of  our  years  are  threescore  years  and  ten, 
Or  if  by  reason  of  strength  fourscore  years  ; 
Yet  is  their  pride  but  labor  and  sorrow ; 
For  it  is  soon  gone,  and  we  fly  away." 

We  may  take,  again,  the  third  Psalm,  which  was  written, 
as  the  title  informs  us,  when  David  was  fleeing  from  Ab- 
salom. This  fact  enables  us  to  read  a  deeper  meaning  into 
the  opening,  burdened  cry  of  the  poem :  — 

"Lord,  how  are  mine  adversaries  increased! 
Many  are  they  that  rise  up  against  me. 
Many  there  be  which  say  of  my  soul, 
There  is  no  help  for  him  in  God." 

At  the  same  time,  the  later  verses  of  the  poem  show  us 
the  strength  of  David's  faith  in  the  Lord. 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  in  some  cases  the  titles  are  mis- 
leading as  to  the  circumstances  of  the  Psalm,  and  fail,  there- 
fore;* to  throw  any  light  upon  it. 


POETICAL  BOOKS   OF  JOB   AND  PSALMS  149 

Varied  Themes.  —  The  wide  range  of  themes  found  in  the 
Psalms  cannot  be  otherwise  than  astonishing.  There  is 
scarcely  any  phase  of  the  religious  or  spiritual  life  that  re- 
mains untouched.  These  sacred  lyrics  deal  with  the  funda- 
mental truths  and  experiences  of  true  religion  ;  and  hence 
they  have  little  to  say  about  ritual  observances,  and  much 
about  the  relation  of  the  soul  to  God.  They  are  prophetic 
rather  than  priestly.  Hence  David,  in  his  great  penitential 
Psalm,  says  :  — 

"  Thou  delightest  not  in  sacrifice  ;  else  would  I  give  it ; 
Thou  hast  no  pleasure  in  burnt  offering. 
The  sacrifices  of  God  are  a  broken  spirit ; 
A  broken  and  a  contrite  heart,  O  God,  Thou  wilt  not  despise." 1 

Perhaps  no  other  fact  is  more  characteristic  or  more 
fundamental  in  the  Psalms  than  their  strong,  pervading 
consciousness  of  God.  Nowhere  else  do  we  find  a  more 
beautiful  statement  of  His  omnipresent  and  providential 
care  than  in  the  i3Qth  Psalm:  — 

"Whither  shall  I  go  from  Thy  spirit? 
Or  whither  shall  I  flee  from  Thy  presence? 
If  I  ascend  up  into  heaven,  Thou  art  there  ; 
If  I  make  my  bed  in  Sheol,  behold,  Thou  art  there. 
If  I  take  the  wings  of  the  morning, 
And  dwell  in  the  uttermost  parts  of  the  sea; 
Even  there  shall  Thy  hand  lead  me, 
And  Thy  right  hand  shall  hold  me." 

This  strong  sense  of  the  divine  presence  and  goodness 
was  attended  with  a  corresponding  trust,  which  imparted 
to  the  psalmist  at  the  same  time  force  of  character  and 
serenity  of  mind.  This  is  shown  in  the  opening  verses  of 
the  46th  Psalm :  — 

l  Ps.  51 : 16,  17. 


150  AN   INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

"  God  is  our  refuge  and  strength, 
A  very  present  help  in  trouble. 

Therefore  will  not  we  fear  though  the  earth  do  change, 
And  though  the  mountains  be  moved  in  the  heart  of  the  seas ; 
Though  the  waters  thereof  roar  and  be  troubled, 
Though  the  mountains  shake  with  the  swelling  thereof." 

The  first  Psalm  is  a  fitting  introduction  to  the  entire  col- 
lection. It  teaches  the  blessedness  of  the  righteous,  and 
the  judgment  of  the  wicked.  Though  the  outward  con- 
trasts in  this  life  are  by  no  means  so  striking  and  invariable 
as  the  Hebrew  poet  imagined,  the  truth  he  presents  is 
necessarily  universal.  When  the  ways  of  God  are  under- 
stood in  all  their  wide  reach  and  results,  there  can  never 
be  any  ground  to  impeach  His  justice  and  goodness.  It 
will  always  remain  true  that,  — 

"  Blessed  is  the  man  that  walketh  not  in  the  counsel  of  the  wicked 
Nor  standeth  in  the  way  of  sinners, 
Nor  sitteth  in  the  seat  of  the  scornful. 
But  his  delight  is  in  the  law  of  the  Lord ; 
And  in  His  law  doth  he  meditate  day  and  night." 

The  whole  circuit  of  religious  emotion  —  joy  and  sorrow, 
faith  and  doubt,  confidence  and  repentance,  righteousness 
and  sin,  triumph  and  failure,  love  and  hate  —  finds  full 
and  repeated  expression  in  the  Psalms.  So  varied  are  the 
subjects  treated  that  no  effort  at  classification  has  been 
entirely  satisfactory.  Often  a  single  Psalm  breathes  forth 
many  phases  of  spiritual  experience.1 

1 "  To  be  sincere,  simple,  genuine,  transparent  with  God,  to  dare  to  show  Him 
our  worst  as  well  as  our  best,  to  dare  to  ask  Him  to  search  us  and  see  if  there  be 
any  evil  way  in  us,  to  treat  Him  as  we  treat  the  physician,  pointing  out  to  Him  every- 
thing in  us  that  He  may  teach  us  what  is  evil  and  what  is  good,  and  how  to  abhor 
the  evil  and  to  cleave  to  the  good,  to  treat  Him  as  our  best  and  most  intimate 
friend,  from  whom  we  wish  to  conceal  nothing,  —  this  is  one  of  the  lessons  which 
the  unreserved  candor  of  these  ancient  lyrics  teaches,  and  which  the  church  still 
has  need  to  learn."  —  LYMAN  ABBOTT,  "  Life  and  Literature  of  the  Ancient 
Hebrews,"  p.  315. 


POETICAL  BOOKS  OF  JOB   AND  PSALMS  151 

RESEARCH    WORK 
JOB 

The  prologue,   1,2. 

Job  curses  the  day  of  his  birth,  3. 

The  first  speech  of  Eliphaz,  4,  5. 

Job's  desire  of  death,  7. 

The  first  speech  of  Bildad,  8. 

Job's  complaint  to  God,  10. 

The  first  speech  of  Zophar,  1 1 . 

Job's  defence  against  his  friends,  12-14. 

Prosperity  of  the  wicked,  24. 

A  tribute  to  wisdom,  28. 

Job's  contrast  of  prosperity  and  adversity,  29,  30. 

The  discourses  of  Elihu,  32-37. 

Jehovah's  addresses  from  the  whirlwind,  38-41. 

The  epilogue,  42. 

PSALMS 

A  contrast  of  the  righteous  and  the  wicked,  Ps.  I. 

David's  Psalm  when  fleeing  from  Absalom,  Ps.  4. 

Insignificance  and  greatness  of  man,  Ps.  8. 

A  citizen  of  Zion,  Ps.  15. 

A  story  of  deliverance  from  enemies,  Ps.  18. 

Nature  and  the  law  of  God,  Ps.  19. 

An  expression  of  confidence,  Ps.  23. 

A  processional  song,  Ps.  24. 

A  hymn  of  faith,  Ps.  27. 

God  manifested  in  a  thunderstorm,  Ps.  29. 

Blessedness  of  forgiveness,  Ps.  32. 

A  hymn  of  praise,  Ps.  33. 

Admonition  to  patience  and  confidence,  Ps.  37. 

The  brevity  of  life,  Ps.  39. 

A  marriage  hymn,  Ps.  45. 

A  song  of  triumphant  trust,  Ps.  46. 

David's  penitence  and  prayer,  Ps.  51. 

David's  prayer  when  fleeing  from  Saul,  Ps.  57. 

A  song  of  exile,  Ps.  63. 


152  4 AT  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

A  hymn  of  praise,  Ps.  65. 

A  Psalm  of  Solomon,  Ps.  72. 

A  historical  contemplation,  Ps.  78. 

A  prayer  of  Moses,  Ps.  90. 

A  song  for  the  Sabbath  day,  Ps.  92. 

An  exhortation  to  praise  God,  Ps.  103. 

A  meditation  on  the  power  of  God,  Ps.  104. 

A  national  anthem,  Ps.  105. 

The  blessing  of  righteousness,  Ps.  112. 

An  alphabetic  Psalm,  Ps.  119. 

Pilgrim  songs,  or  songs  of  degrees,  Ps.  120-134. 

An  elegy  of  the  captivity,  Ps.  137. 

David's  Psalm  of  praise,  Ps.  145. 

Exhortations  to  praise,  Ps.  146-150. 


CHAPTER  IX 

PROVERBS,  ECCLESIASTES,  AND  SONG  OF  SOLOMON 

Wisdom  Literature.  —  In  Job  we  have  had  a  spiritual 
drama ;  in  Psalms,  a  splendid  collection  of  lyrics ;  and 
now,  in  the  book  of  Proverbs  we  have  an  admirable  body 
of  didactic  poetry.  The  couplets  and  more  elaborate 
forms  of  verse  that  enter  into  Proverbs  belong  to  what  is 
called  the  Wisdom  literature  of  the  Hebrews.  This  lit- 
erature takes  the  place  of  philosophical  writing  among 
other  peoples.  It  is  indeed  a  kind  of  philosophy,  based 
not  on  abstract  speculation,  but  on  practical  observation. 
It  is  utilitarian  in  spirit;  but  like  nearly  all  the  other  writ- 
ings of  the  ancient  Jews,  it  rests  on  a  religious  foundation, 
and  is  pervaded  by  a  religious  tone.  As  is  stated  in  the 
first  chapter,  — 

"The  fear  of  the  Lord  is  the  beginning  of  knowledge." 

But  while  the  Wisdom  literature  is  essentially  religious, 
it  is  not  concerned,  as  are  the  Psalms,  with  spiritual  emo- 
tions and  High  theological  truths.  It  deals  with  the  every-day 
affairs  of  life ;  and  accordingly  we  find  practical  directions 
for  individual  conduct,  social  duties,  and  commercial  trans- 
actions. If  fully  exemplified  in  individual  life,  the  teach- 
ings of  Proverbs  would  result  in  a  noble  type  of  manhood, 
in  which  a  profound  piety  would  be  joined  to  the  virtues 
of  purity,  sobriety,  diligence,  generosity,  and  prudence. 
The  book  is  therefore  well  worth  a  careful  study. 


154  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

Division  and  Authorship. — A  brief  examination  of  the 
book  of  Proverbs  will  show  that  it  is  not  an  organic  or 
connected  unity.  It  is  obviously  a  compilation,  which  is 
readily  divided  into  six  parts  as  follows  :  — 

1.  The  praise  of  Wisdom  (chapters  1-9). 

2.  Proverbs  of  Solomon  (chapters  10-22  :  16). 

3.  Words  of  the  Wise  (chapter  22  :  17-24). 

4.  Additional  proverbs  of  Solomon  (chapters  25-29). 

5.  The  words  of  Agur  (chapter  30). 

6.  The  words  of  King  Lemuel,  including  the  beautiful 
description  of  a  virtuous  woman  (chapter  31). 

It  is  thus  seen  that  the  book  of  Proverbs  is  a  composite 
work.  But  the  second  part,  which  constitutes  the  body  of 
the  book,  is  attributed  to  Solomon ;  and  there  seems  to  be 
no  sufficient  reason  for  discarding  this  ancient  belief.  We 
know  from  I  Kings  4:32  that  Solomon  "spake  three 
thousand  proverbs " ;  and  in  the  work  before  us  it  is 
highly  probable  that  some  of  these  wise  sayings  have 
been  preserved. 

The  introduction  to  the  fourth  part  tells  us  that  "  these 
also  are  proverbs  of  Solomon,  which  the  men  of  Hezekiah, 
King  of  Judah,  copied  out."  Though  many  of  the  proverbs 
are  of  different  authorship  and  of  much  later  date,  tradi- 
tion has  probably  made  no  mistake  in  associating  the  book 
with  the  name  of  the  wise  king  of  Israel. 

Part  First.  —  The  purpose  of  the  book  of  Proverbs  is 
clearly  stated  in  the  opening  verses.  Its  aim  is  altogether 
practical :  — 

"To  give  subtilty  to  the  simple, 
To  the  young  man  knowledge  and  discretion : 
That  the  wise  man  may  hear  and  increase  in  learning ; 
And  that  the  man  of  understanding  may  attain  to  sound  counsels." 


PROVERBS,   ECCLESIASTES,   AND  SONG  OF  SOLOMON     155 

The  general  theme  of  part  first  is  the  praise  of  wisdom, 
the  excellence  of  which  is  celebrated  in  elaborate  verse :  — 

"  Happy  is  the  man  that  findeth  wisdom, 
And  the  man  that  getteth  understanding. 

For  the  merchandise  of  it  is  better  than  the  merchandise  of  silver, 
And  the  gain  thereof  than  fine  gold. 
She  is  more  precious  than  rubies ; 

•And  none  of  the  things  thou  canst  desire  are  to  be  compared  unto  her. 
Length  of  days  is  in  her  right  hand ; 
In  her  left  hand  riches  and  honor. 
Her  ways  are  ways  of  pleasantness, 
And  all  her  paths  are  peace. 
She  is  a  tree  of  life  to  them  that  lay  hold  of  her ; 
And  happy  is  every  one  that  retaineth  her." 

—  Ch.  3:  13-18. 

While  earnestly  commending  wisdom,  the  writer,  speak- 
ing in  the  character  of  a  father,  warns  his  imaginary  son 
or  disciple  against  various  evils  to  which  he  is  likely  to  be 
exposed.  Crimes  of  violence  are  to  be  avoided  ;  the  snares 
of  the  "  strange  woman  "  are  clearly  pointed  out ;  the  im- 
prudence of  becoming  surety  for  another  is  dwelt  upon ; 
and  several  sins  especially  hated  of  the  Lord  are  woven 
together  in  an  elaborate  stanza.  Here  is  what  Professor 
Moulton  calls  a  "  Sonnet  on  the  Sluggard  "  : l  — 

"Go  to  the  ant,  thou  sluggard ; 

Consider  her  ways,  and  be  wise : 
Which  having  no  chief, 
Overseer  or  ruler, 

Provideth  her  meat  in  the  summer, 
And  gathereth  her  food  in  the  harvest. 

How  long  wilt  thou  sleep,  O  sluggard? 

When  wilt  thou  arise  out  of  thy  sleep? 
'  Yet  a  little  sleep,  a  little  slumber, 
A  little  folding  of  the  hands  to  sleep : ' 

l  R.  G.  Moulton,  "  Literary  Study  of  the  Bible,"  p.  281. 


156  AN   INTRODUCTION    TO   BIBLE  STUDY 

So  shall  thy  poverty  come  as  a  robber, 
And  thy  want  as  an  armed  man." 

—  Ch.  6:6-11. 

Part  Second.  —  The  second  part  is  made  up,  as  the  title 
informs  us,  of  "the  proverbs  of  Solomon."  These  are 
brief,  sententious  sayings  in  the  form  of  couplets.  The 
antithetic  form  of  parallelism  is  the  prevailing  type.  The 
proverbs  treat  of  a  great  variety  of  subjects,  and  observe 
no  distinguishable  order.  Though  a  dominant  religious 
spirit  underlies  the  collection,  the  proverbs  deal  almost 
exclusively  with  the  ordinary  secular  relations  of  life. 
They  are  as  applicable  to  life  to-day  as  in  the  reign  of  the 
great  king  of  Israel. 

Out  of  this  store  of  practical  wisdom  only  two  or  three 
extracts,  by  way  of  illustration,  can  be  taken.  In  the  pres- 
ent day,  when  wealth  is  so  often  acquired  in  unscrupulous 
ways,  it  is  well  to  remember  that  — 

"  Better  is  a  little  with  righteousness 
Than  great  revenues  with  injustice." 

—  Ch.  1:8. 

Every  thoughtful  man  is  conscious  of  the  fact  that  there 
is  a  power  over,  him  that,  in  large  measure,  controls  his 
destiny.  This  fact  was  recognized  ages  ago ;  and  so  we 
are  told  that  — 

"A  man's  heart  deviseth  his  way ; 
But  the  Lord  directeth  his  steps." 

—  Ch.  16:9. 

In  sympathy  with  the  prophetic  spirit  of  Israel,  the 
Proverbs  teach  a  religion,  not  of  ritualistic  ceremonies,  but 
of  practical  ethics.  Thus  they  declare  that  — 

"  To  do  justice  and  judgment 
Is  more  acceptable  to  the  Lord  than  sacrifice." 

—  Ch.  21:3. 


PROVERBS,   ECCLESIASTES,   AND  SONG  OF  SOLOMON     157 

Part  Third.  —  The  third  part  of  Proverbs  is  composed 
of  "the  words  of  the  Wise."  1  Like  the  preceding  parts, 
it  deals  with  the  usual  duties  and  ills  of  life.  In  place  of 
antithetic  couplets,  it  uses  various  elaborated  forms  of 
parallelism.  It  warns  against  the  oppression  of  the  poor ; 
against  friendship  with  a  man  given  to  anger;  against 
the  removal  of  landmarks;  and  against  gluttony,  envy, 
and  sloth. 

Drunkenness  seems  to  have  been  a  common  vice  in  the 
writer's  day,  and  accordingly  he  utters  repeated  and  vig- 
orous warnings  against  it :  — 

"Who  hath  woe?  who  hath  sorrow?  who  hath  contentions? 
Who  hath  complaining?  who  hath  wounds  without  cause? 
Who  hath  redness  of  eyes? 

They  that  tarry  long  at  the  wine ; 

They  that  go  to  seek  out  mixed  wine. 
Look  not  thou  upon  the  wine  when  it  is  red, 
When  it  giveth  its  color  in  the  cup, 
When  it  goeth  down  smoothly  : 

At  the  last  it  biteth  like  a  serpent, 

And  stingeth  like  an  adder." 

—  Ch.  23  :  29-32. 

Other  Parts.  —  Of  the  remaining  parts  there  is  not  room 
to  speak  at  any  length.  "  The  words  of  Agur,"  as  con- 
tained in  the  thirtieth  chapter,  are  embodied  in  a  series 
of  lengthy  verse  forms,  in  which  the  number  four  is  con- 
spicuous. We  find  in  them  a  warning  against  slander, 
the  marks  of  an  evil  generation,  four  insatiable  things, 
the  fate  of  the  disobedient  son,  four  incomprehensible 
things,  four  intolerable  things,  four  wise  animals,  four 
things  stately  in  their  going,  and  a  warning  against  strife. 

1  Ch.  22 :  17-24. 


158  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

The  poet's  prayer  for  the  golden  mean  of  fortune  is  as 
follows :  — 

"  Two  things  have  I  asked  of  Thee  ; 
Deny  me  them  not  before  I  die : 

Remove  far  from  me  vanity  and  lies : 

Give  me  neither  poverty  nor  riches  ; 

Feed  me  with  the  food  that  is  needful  for  me : 
Lest  I  be  full,  and  deny  Thee,  and  say,  Who  is  the  Lord? 
Or  lest  I  be  poor,  and  steal, 
And  use  profanely  the  name  of  my  God." 

The  last  chapter  of  Proverbs  contains  the  praises  of  a 
virtuous  woman.  Perhaps  no  greater  tribute  has  ever 
been  paid  to  faithful,  diligent,  wise,  and  upright  woman- 
hood :  — 

"  She  openeth  her  mouth  with  wisdom  ; 
And  the  law  of  kindness  is  on  her  tongue. 
She  looketh  well  to  the  ways  of  her  household, 
And  eateth  not  the  bread  of  idleness. 
Her  children  rise  up,  and  call  her  blessed ; 
Her  husband  also,  and  he  praiseth  her,  saying, 
Many  daughters  have  done  virtuously, 
But  thou  excellest  them  all." 

Ecclesiastes.  —  The  book  of  Ecclesiastes  sounds  a  strange 
note  in  the  harmonies  of  the  Old  Testament.  Its  view  of 
life,  in  spite  of  a  fundamental  trust  in  God,  is  depressing. 
Its  theme  throughout  is  the  emptiness  of  life.  Wherever 
the  writer  turns  his  eyes,  he  finds  that  "  all  is  vanity." 
"  I  have  seen  all  the  works,"  he  declares,  "  that  are  done 
under  the  sun ;  and,  behold,  all  is  vanity  and  vexation  of 
spirit.  That  which  is  crooked  cannot  be  made  straight; 
and  that  which  is  wanting  cannot  be  numbered."  1 

This  morbid  and  depressing  view  of  life  has  caused 
devout  scholars  no  end  of  perplexity.  Many  are  the  con- 

1  Eccl.  i :  14,  15. 


PROVERBS,   ECCLESIASTES,   AND   SONG  OF  SOLOMON     159 

tradictory  views  which  have  been  entertained.  Yet  the 
explanation  seems  near  at  hand.  In  Ecclesiastes  we  have 
a  matchless  utterance  of  the  sense  of  world-weariness 
that  is  apt  at  times  to  come  to  us  all.  When  our  store 
of  vitality  runs  low,  when  our  hopes  have  been  repeatedly 
shattered,  and  the  course  of  the  world  seems  all  awry, 
then  with  the  ancient  Preacher  we  are  apt  to  feel  that  "  all 
is  vanity." 

It  is  this  full  expression  of  a  mood,  felt  at  times  by 
most  men,  that  invests  Ecclesiastes  with  a  peculiar  interest. 
It  has  been  called  the  most  modern  book  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament. Certainly  its  mood  is  often  felt  in  the  midst  of 
modern  competitive  life,  and  sometimes  embodied  in  mod- 
ern literature.  Thackeray  understood  its  burden  when 
in  his  Vanitas  Vanitatem,  he  wrote :  — 

"  Though  thrice  a  thousand  years  have  passed 

Since  David's  son,  the  sad  and  splendid, 
The  weary  king  Ecclesiast, 

Upon  his  awful  tablets  penned  it,  — 

"  Methinks  the  text  is  never  stale, 
And  life  is  every  day  renewing 
Fresh  comments  on  the  old,  old  tale 
Of  fortune,  folly,  glory,  ruin." 1 

Authorship  and  Date.  —  The  traditional  view  ascribes 
the  authorship  to  Solomon.  This  view  is  based  on  the 
opening  statement,  which  assigns  the  authorship  to  "the 
son  of  David,  King  of  Jerusalem."  Furthermore,  the  mag- 
nificence, wealth,  and  power  displayed  in  the  experiments 

1  "  Ecclesiastes  needs  a  certain  preparation  of  the  mind  and  character,  a  certain 
'  elective  affinity,'  in  order  to  be  appreciated  as  it  deserves.  To  enjoy  it,  we  must 
find  our  own  difficulties  and  our  own  moods  anticipated  in  it.  We  must  be  able 
to  sympathize  with  its  author  either  in  his  world-weariness  and  scepticism,  or  in  his 
victorious  struggle  (if  so  be  it  was  victorious)  through  darkness  into  light."  —  T.  K. 
CHEYNE,  "Job  and  Solomon,"  p.  242. 


160  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

of  the  second  chapter  are  in  keeping  with  the  regal  station 
and  historic  achievements  of  David's  illustrious  son. 

But  the  prevailing  view  among  biblical  scholars  of  the 
present  day  makes  Solomon  the  hero  rather  than  the  author 
of  the  book.  A  later  writer,  in  accordance  with  a  common 
custom,  placed  his  reflections  on  life  in  the  mouth  of  the 
ancient  king  of  Israel.  This  view  is  based  chiefly  on  two 
facts  :  first,  the  sentiments  and  political  conditions  reflected 
in  the  poem  are  often  out  of  keeping  with  the  character 
and  reign  of  Solomon;  and,  second,  the  language  of  the 
original,  in  its  use  of  foreign  words  and  idioms,  betrays  a 
corruption  of  the  older  classic  Hebrew.  Accordingly,  the 
probable  date  is  indicated  as  about  200  B.C.,  which  makes 
Ecclesiastes  one  of  the  latest  books  of  the  Old  Testament. 

Search  for  Happiness.  — The  book  of  Ecclesiastes  is  not 
a  logically  developed  treatise.  It  seems  to  consist  of  a 
succession  of  essays  or  observations,  which  are  separated 
by  interludes  of  brief  or  proverbial  comments  on  life. 
The  greater  part  of  the  book  is  in  prose;  but  now  and 
then,  as  in  portions  of  the  seventh,  tenth,  eleventh,  and 
twelfth  chapters,  it  rises  into  the  region  of  poetic  thought 
and  expression.  We  may,  therefore,  regard  Ecclesiastes 
as  a  prose  poem. 

The  most  clearly  defined  portion  of  the  book  is  Solomon's 
search  for  happiness,  as  related  in  the  first  two  chapters. 
After  dwelling  on  the  wearisome  round  of  the  world,  which 
entombs  successive  generations  in  the  depths  of  oblivion, 
the  royal  preacher  recounts  his  fourfold  experiment  to  as- 
certain "what  it  was  good  for  the  sons  of  men  that  they 
should  do  under  the  heaven  all  the  days  of  their  life."  He 
first  tried  wisdom  ;  but  at  last  it  seemed  to  him  "a  striving 
after  wind.  For  in  much  wisdom  is  much  grief :  and  he 
that  increaseth  knowledge  increaseth  sorrow." 


PROVERBS,  ECCLESIASTES,   AND   SONG   OF  SOLOMON     161 

The  disappointed  seeker  then  turns  to  pleasure.  He 
builds  magnificent  houses  and  lays  out  splendid  parks. 
He  accumulates  great  treasures  of  gold  and  silver,  and 
surrounds  himself  with  every  form  of  artistic  and  sensual 
delight.  "Whatsoever  mine  eyes  desired,"  he  tells  us,  "  I 
kept  not  from  them ;  I  withheld  not  my  heart  from  any 
joy."  And  what  was  the  result?  It  might  well  stand  as 
a  warning  to  all  those  who  to-day  are  following  in  the  foot- 
steps of  the  voluptuous  king  :  "  Behold,  all  was  vanity  and 
a  striving  after  wind,  and  there  was  no  profit  under  the 
sun." 

In  his  renewed  and  bitter  disappointment,  the  king  pro- 
ceeds to  study  the  wisdom  and. folly  of  human  nature,  and 
finds  that  "one  event  happeneth"  alike  to  wise  men  and  to 
fools.  The  acquisition  of  riches  likewise  failed  to  bring 
him  peace  of  mind ;  for,  apart  from  the  strenuous  toil  of 
accumulation,  which  prevented  his  heart  from  taking  rest, 
he  could  not  tell  who  would  inherit  his  wealth. 

As  a  result  of  his  search  after  the  supreme  good  of  life, 
the  royal  investigator  reaches  a  conclusion.  It  is  the  con- 
clusion of  the  faithful,  prosaic  man  in  every  age,  who, 
through  bitter  disappointments,  has  still  retained  his  hold 
on  God.  It  is  the  deep  lesson  of  duty.  "There  is  nothing 
better  for  a  man,"  says  the  royal  preacher,  "  than  that  he 
should  eat  and  drink,  and  make  his  soul  enjoy  good  in  his 
labor.  This  also  I  saw,  that  it  is  from  the  hand  of  God." 

Contradictory  Views.  —  As  in  the  case  of  most  men 
who  take  morbid  views  of  life,  we  recognize  in  the  author 
of  Ecclesiastes  changing  moods  and  contradictory  sen- 
timents. Sometimes  a  gleam  of  light  breaks  through  the 
gloom.  At  one  time,  with  a  triumphant  pessimism,  he 
roundly  declares  that  life  is  an  evil.  "  I  praised  the  dead 
which  are  already  dead,"  he  says,  "more  than  the  living 


T 62  AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   BIBLE  STUDY 

which  are  yet  alive ;  yea,  better  than  them  both  did  I 
esteem  him  which  hath  not  yet  been,  who  hath  not  seen 
the  evil  work  that  is  done  under  the  sun."  l 

At  other  times  the  royal  ecclesiast  takes  a  more  cheerful 
view  of  life.  He  declares  "  a  living  dog  is  better  than  a 
dead  lion  "  (9:4);  and  during  a  brief  rift  in  the  clouds  he 
finds  that  "  truly  the  light  is  sweet,  and  a  pleasant  thing  it 
is  for  the  eyes  to  behold  the  sun.  Yea,  if  a  man  live  many 
years,  let  him  rejoice  in  them  all"  (i  i :  7,  8). 

A  Fixed  Principle.  —  Rarely  has  any  man  more  clearly 
perceived  the  various  ills  of  life  than  the  author  of  this  in- 
teresting book.  He  has  discovered  the  insufficiency  of 
intellectual  attainments,  royal  splendor,  and  boundless 
wealth  to  still  the  imperious  longings  of  the  soul.  He 
has  seen  wrong  usurping  .the  place  of  justice;  he  has 
recognized  the  trials,  disappointments,  and  sufferings  of 
life;  he  has  keenly  felt  the  limitations  of  human  knowl- 
edge and  the  impossibility  of  fully  understanding  the 
ways  of  God ;  he  has  discerned  the  frequent  pros- 
perity of  the  wicked  and  the  ofttime  adversity  of  the 
righteous. 

But  through  it  all  he  has  held  fast  to  one  anchor  of  the 
soul.  Righteousness  is  not  in  vain  on  the  earth.  "Though 
a  sinner  do  evil  an  hundred  times,"  he  says,  "  and  prolong 
his  days,  yet  surely  I  know  that  it  shall  be  well  with  them 
that  fear  God,  which  fear  before  Him  ;  but  it  shall  not  be 
well  with  the  wicked."2  In  this  truth  we  recognize  the 

1  Eccl.  4 :  2,  3.    Compare  this  with  a  stanza  in  Byron's  "  Euthanasia  " :  — 

"  Count  o'er  the  joys  thine  hours  have  seen, 
Count  o'er  thy  days  from  anguish  free : 
And  know,  whatever  thou  hast  been, 
Tis  something  better  not  to  be." 

2  Eccl.  8  :  12, 13. 


PROVERBS,   ECCLESIASTES,   AND   SONG   OF   SOLOMON     163 

unconquerable  Hebrew  faith  in  the  sovereignty  and  justice 
of  God.1 

The  Epilogue.  —  There  is  not  space  to  dwell  upon  the 
well-known  "  philosophy  of  times  "  as  presented  in  the 
third  chapter,  nor  upon  the  beautiful  symbolic  poem  on 
life  in  the  last  chapter,  beginning  — 

"  Remember  now  thy  Creator  in  the  days  of  thy  youth, 
While  the  evil  days  come  not,  nor  the  years  draw  nigh, 
When  thou  shalt  say,  I  have  no  pleasure  in  them ; 
While  the  sun,  or  the  light,  or  the  moon,  or  the  stars,  be  not 

darkened, 
Nor  the  clouds  return  after  the  rain." 

It  only  remains  to  give  the  final  conclusion  to  which  the 
author  comes  after  all  his  contemplation  of  life.  This  con- 
clusion reveals  to  us  the  deeply  religious  character  of  the 
author,  and,  in  spite  of  its  gloom,  the  religious  aim  of  the 
book.  Though  its  reception  into  the  canon  was  late,  there 
was  no  mistake  made  in  giving  it  a  place  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment scriptures.  Whatever  errors  of  judgment  may  have 
escaped  the  writer  in  his  moments  of  deepest  gloom,  there 
can  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  truth  of  the  final  outcome: 
"  Let  us  hear  the  conclusion  of  the  whole  matter ;  fear 
God,  and  keep  His  commandments;  for  this  is. the  whole 
duty  of  man.  For  God  shall  bring  every  work  into  judg- 
ment with  every  secret  thing,  whether  it  be  good,  or 
whether  it  be  evil." 

Song  of  Solomon. — Like  the  book  of  Ecclesiastes,  the 
Song  of  Solomon  strikes  a  new  and  strange  note  in  the 

1  "  Single  passages,  taken  apart  from  their  connection,  might  seem  to  express 
a  frank  Epicureanism  and  the  grossest  materialism,  a  frivolous  scepticism  and  deso- 
late despair  of  every  thing  ideal ;  but  we  should  do  the  author  bitter  injustice,  if  we 
saw  therein  his  final  word  and  his  true  meaning.  No,  he  has  not  given  up  his 
faith  in  God  and  a  moral  order  of  the  world." —  CORNILL,  "  Einleitung  in  das  Alte 
Testament,"  p.  250. 


1 64  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE   STUDY 

Old  Testament  writings.  It  does  not  mention  the  name 
of  God;  it  is  destitute  of  any  clear  ethical  motive.  As 
Cornill  remarks,  "  No  unprejudiced  reader  can  for  a 
moment  doubt  that  love,  the  love  of  man  for  woman  and 
the  love  of  woman  for  man,  is  the  sole  and  uniform  theme 
of  the  Song."  1 

But  this  unethical  character  of  the  book  was  not  readily 
accepted  by  the  biblical  scholars  of  the  early  and  mediaeval 
church.  On  the  basis  of  its  celebration  of  human  love, 
its  place  in  the  sacred  Scriptures  could  not  easily  be  justi- 
fied. Accordingly,  the  Song  of  Songs  was  considered  an 
allegory,  which  represented  the  mutual  love  existing  be- 
tween Christ  and  the  church.  This  allegorical  view,  which 
lifts  the  poem  into  the  realm  of  religion,  is  indicated  in 
the  headings  of  the  chapters  in  the  King  James  version. 

Literary  Form.  —  It  has  long  been  a  difficult  problem  to 
master  the  literary  form  of  Solomon's  Song.  A  cursory 
reading  shows  that  in  part  at  least  the  poem  is  in  the  form 
of  dialogue.  In  the  first  chapter,  for  example,  it  is  clear 
that  a  man  and  a  woman — a  bridegroom  and  a  bride  — 
are  expressing  to  each  other  their  mutual  admiration  and 
love :  — 

"Bridegroom.    I  have  compared  thee,  O  my  love, 

To  a  steed  in  Pharaoh's  chariots. 

Thy  cheeks  are  comely  with  plaits  of  hair, 

Thy  neck  with  strings  of  jewels. 

We  will  make  thee  plaits  of  gold 

With  studs  of  silver. 
«  Bride.  While  the  king  sat  at  his  table, 

My  spikenard  sent  forth  its  fragrance. 

My  beloved  is  unto  me  as  a  bundle  of  myrrh, 

That  lieth  betwixt  my  breasts. 

My  beloved  is  unto  me  as  a  cluster  of  henna-flowers 

In  the  vineyards  of  Engedi." 

l  Cornill,  "  Einleitung  in  das  Alte  Testament,"  p.  253. 


PROVERBS,  ECCLESIASTES,  AND  SONG   OF  SOLOMON       165 

But  there  are  no  stage  directions;  King  Solomon  and 
a  Shulammite  maiden  are  only  incidentally  indicated  as 
dramatis  persona  ;  and  the  divisions  of  the  work  are  only 
occasionally  indicated  by  a  refrain,  as  in  the  second  and 
third  chapters  :  — 

"  I  adjure  you,  O  daughters  of  Jerusalem, 
By  the  roes,  and  by  the  hinds  of  the  field, 
That  ye  stir  not;  up,  nor  awaken  love, 
Until  it  please.1' 

A  Lyrical  Drama.  —  In  the  presence  of  these  obscurities 
of  structure,  critical  ingenuity  has  been  severely  taxed  to 
make  out  the  precise  form  that  was  in  the  mind  of  the 
original  writer.  As  might  be  expected,  there  has  been 
great  divergence  of  view.  Fortunately,  the  solution  of 
the  problem  has  been  found  in  our  recent  acquaintance 
with  Oriental  marriage  customs,  and  we  are  amply  justified 
in  pronouncing  the  Song  of  Songs  a  sort  of  lyrical  drama. 

In  Syria  the  wedding  festivities,  known  as  "  the  king's 
week,"  continue  for  seven  days.  The  bridegroom  and 
bride,  as  king  and  queen,  occupy  improvised  thrones  in 
the  presence  of  many  neighborhood  guests  ;  and  the  oc- 
casion is  enlivened  by  songs,  dances,  and  plays.  In  the 
work  before  us  we  probably  have  a  collection  of  songs 
arranged  for  such  a  wedding  festival.  With  this  fact  in 
mind,  the  general  plan  and  spirit  of  the  piece  become  con- 
vincingly clear. 

Dramatic  Analysis.  —  Accordingly,  the  characters  are 
the  king,  his  bride,  and  a  chorus  of  the  daughters  of 
Jerusalem.  We  may  distinguish  seven  lyrical  scenes 
which  collectively  round  out  a  beautiful  work  of  art. 
Only  the  general  character  of  the  successive  scenes  can 
be  indicated :  — 


1 66  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

1.  The  wedding  day  (i  :  2-2  :  7). 

2.  The  bride's   reminiscences   of  the   courtship  (2  :  8- 

3:5> 

3.  The  day  of  betrothal  (3  :  6-5  :  i). 

4.  The  bride's  troubled  dream  (5  :  2-6  :  3). 

5.  The  king's  meditation  on  his  bride  (6  :  4-7  :  9).  i 

6.  The  bride's  longing  for  her  home  in  Lebanon  (7  :  10- 

8:4). 

7.  The  renewal  of  love  in   the  vineyard   of   Lebanon 

(8:5-i4y 

In  the  first  scene  the  bride  is  conducted,  with  an  at- 
tendant chorus  of  maidens,  to  the  palace  of  her  husband. 
It  closes  with  a  refrain.  In  the  second  scene  the  bride 
dwells  upon  the  days  of  courtship,  and  recounts  the  happy 
ending  of  a  troubled  dream  :  — 

"  When  I  found  him  whom  my  soul  loveth, 
I  held  him  and  would  not  let  him  go.1' 

The  third  scene  describes  the  stately  coming  of  the  king, 
and  repeats  his  words  of  ardent  admiration  :  — 

"  Behold,  thou  art  fair,  my  love  ;  behold,  thou  art  fair ; 
Thine  eyes  are  as  doves  behind  thy  veil ; 
Thy  hair  is  as  a  flock  of  goats, 
That  lie  along  the  side  of  Mount  Gilead." 

In  the  fourth  scene  the  bride  relates  a  troubled  dream, 
in  which  she  loses  her  lover  and  seeks  for  him  in  vain. 
Scene  fifth  contains  the  king's  meditation  on  the  per- 
fections of  his  bride,  with  a  reminiscence  of  their  first 
meeting.  In  scene  sixth  the  bride  expresses  a  longing 
for  her  home  in  Lebanon  :  — 

1  These  titles  are  taken  from  Professor  Moulton,  whose  arrangement  of  the  Song 
of  Songs  in  his  "  Literary  Study  of  the  Bible  "  is  admirably  worked  out. 


PROVERBS,   ECCLESIASTES,   AND   SONG  OF  SOLOMON     167 

"  Come,  my  beloved,  let  us  go  forth  into  the  field ; 
Let  us  lodge  in  the  villages. 
Let  us  get  up  early  to  the  vineyards ; 

Let  us  see  whether  the  vine  hath  budded  and  its  blossom  be  open, 
And  the  pomegranates  be  in  flower : 
There  I  will  give  thee  my  love." 

In  the  last  scene,  there  is.  a  renewal  of  the  pledges  of 
mutual  affection,  and  the  bride  pays  an  immortal  tribute 
to  the  might  of  love  :  — 

"  Set  me  as  a  seal  upon  thine  heart, 
As  a  seal  upon  thine  arm  : 
For  love  is  strong  as  death  ; 
Jealousy  is  cruel  as  the  grave : 
The  flashes  thereof  are  flashes  of  fire, 
A  very  flame  of  the  Lord. 
Many  waters  cannot  quench  love, 
Neither  can  the  floods  drown  it ; 

If  a  man  would  give  all  the  substance  of  his  house  for  love, 
It  would  utterly  be  contemned." 

Love  of  Nature.  — In  this  brief  analysis  we  have  caught 
a  glimpse  of  the  spirit  of  poetry  and  the  intensity  of  pas- 
sion which  pervade  the  drama.  There  is  a  freedom  of 
description  that  is  not  in  keeping  with  modern  "taste ;  yet 
the  poem  breathes  a  blameless  purity.  Every  part  of  it 
rises  far  above  the  commonplace.  The  descriptions  of  na- 
ture are  especially  beautiful.1  Take,  for  example,  a  few 

1  "  It  abounds  in  poetical  gems  of  the  purest  ray.  It  breathes  the  bracing  air  of 
the  hill  country,  and  the  passionate  love  of  man  for  woman  and  woman  for  man. 
It  is  a  revelation  of  the  keen  Hebrew  delight  in  nature,  in  her  vineyards  and  pas- 
tures, flowers  and  fruit  trees,  in  her  doves  and  deer  and  sheep  and  goats.  It  is  a 
song  tremulous  from  beginning  to  end  with  the  passion  of  love;  and  this  love  it 
depicts  in  terms  never  coarse,  but  often  frankly  sensuous  —  so  frankly  sensuous 
that  in  the  first  century  its  place  in  the  canon  was  earnestly  contested  by  Jewish 
scholars."— JOHN  E.  McFADYEN,  "  Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament,"  p.  282. 


1 68  AN   INTRODUCTION    TO   BIBLE  STUDY 

lines  from  the  bride's  recollection  of  the  days  of  court- 
ship :  — 

"  My  beloved  spake,  and  said  unto  me, 
Rise  up,  my  love,  my  fair  one,  and  come  away. 
For,  lo,  the  winter  is  past, 
The  rain  is  over  and  gone ; 
The  flowers  appear  on  the  earth ; 
The  time  of  the  singing  of  birds  is  come, 
And  the  voice  of  the  turtle  is  heard  in  the  land ; 
The  fig  tree  ripeneth  her  green  figs, 
And  the  vines  are  in  blossom, 
They  give  forth  their  fragrance." 

Meaning  of  the  Poem.  —  Though  the  date  and  author- 
ship are  unknown,  the  meaning  of  this  admirable  lyrical 
drama  can  hardly  be  mistaken.  It  is  a  celebration  of  the 
beauty  and  sacredness  of  wedded  love.  Marriage  —  the 
union  of  one  man  and  one  woman  for  life  —  is  a  divine 
institution.  It  was  consecrated  by  the  presence  of  Jesus 
at  Cana  of  Galilee.1  In  an  age  when  marriage  was  too 
often  despised  or  degraded  by  lust  and  polygamy,  it  was 
fitting  that  this  poem,  with  its  purity  of  spirit  and  charm 
of  womanhood,  should  be  sent  forth  on  its  regenerating 
mission. 

Though  an  allegorical  interpretation  was  obviously 
never  intended  by  the  poet,  yet  the  drama  in  a  measure 
lends  itself  to  that  treatment.  The  relation  between  God 
and  His  people  is  often  compared  to  the  relation  of  hus- 
band and  wife.  Throughout  the  Old  Testament,  the  idola- 
try of  the  Hebrews  is  frequently  stigmatized  as  adultery. 
In  view  of  these  facts,  the  ardent  and  faithful  affection 
between  the  bridegroom  and  bride  may  be  easily  trans- 
ferred, as  in  the  King  James  version,  to  Christ  and  His 
church. 

1  John  2:  i-n. 


PROVERBS,   ECCLESIASTES,   AND   SONG  OF  SOLOMON     169 

RESEARCH  WORK 

PROVERBS 

Wisdom's  words  of  warning,  Prov.  I  :  20-33. 

The  blessings  of  wisdom,  Prov.  2. 

Various  interesting  exhortations  of  wisdom,  Prov.  3. 

Warnings  against  the  strange  woman,  Prov.  5. 

The  snares  of  the  adulterous  woman,  Prov.  7. 

Proverbs  of  Solomon,  Prov.  10-22. 

The  evils  of  wine-bibbing,  Prov.  23  :  20-35. 

Fools,  sluggards,  and  meddlers,  Prov.  26. 

The  proverbs  of  Agur,  Prov.  30. 

Praise  of  the  virtuous  housewife,  Prov.  31  :  10-31. 

ECCLESIASTES 

Solomon's  search  for  happiness,  Eccl.  I  :  12-2. 
Discussion  of  times  and  seasons,  Eccl.  3-4:  8. 
The  vanity  of  desire,  Eccl.  5  :  10-6:  12. 
Symbolic  poem  on  old  age,  Eccl.  12  :  1-7. 

SONG  OF  SOLOMON 

The  wedding  day,  Song  of  Solomon,  I  :  2-2  :  7. 

The  bride's  reminiscences  of  courtship,  2  :  8-3  :  5. 

The  day  of  bethrothal,  3:6-5:1. 

The  bride's  troubled  dream,  5  :  2-6:  3. 

The  king's  meditation  on  his  bride,  6 :  4-7  =  9. 

The  bride's  longing  for  Lebanon,  7  :  10-8  :  4. 

The  renewal  of  love  in  the  vineyard,  8  :  5-14. 


CHAPTER  X 

STUDIES    IN    THE    MAJOR  PROPHETS ISAIAH  AND    JEREMIAH 

Introduction.  —  About  one-fourth  of  the  Old  Testament  is 
filled  with  the  writings  of  the  prophets.  The  first  four  — 
Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  and  Daniel  —  are  commonly 
known  as  the  greater  or  major  prophets.  They  deserve 
this  distinction  both  for  the  quantity  of  their  writings  and 
the  importance  of  their  message.  In  entering  upon  a 
study  of  the  prophets,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  they 
were  not  chiefly  foretellers  of  events.  They  were  earnest 
preachers  of  righteousness  in  the  presence  of  political 
problems  or  religious  decadence.  They  were  the  divinely 
appointed  agents  to  lead  the  Hebrew  people  in  the  paths 
of  righteousness. 

They  were  gifted  men  who  clearly  grasped  the  funda- 
mental truths  of  religion.  They  attached  but  little  impor- 
tance to  its  outward  ceremonies;  but  they  had  a  noble 
conception  of  God,  and  eloquently  enforced  obedience  to 
truth  and  righteousness.  To  adopt  the  words  of  Duncker, 
they  declared  that  "  the  lips  and  the  heart  must  be  elevated  to 
His  greatness  ;  His  commands  must  be  kept,  and  men  must 
make  themselves  holy  as  He  is  holy.  The  only  service  of 
the  Holy  God  is  a  holy  and  righteous  life.  Sacrifice  is 
not  required,  but  recognition  of  God,  simplicity,  chastity, 
and  moderation."1  The  prophetical  books  are  made  up 
^  principally  of  popular  addresses,  which  are  frequently 
characterized  by  poetic  imagery  and  masterful  eloquence. 

1  Max  Duncker,  "  History  of  Antiquity,"  Vol.  III.,  p.  27. 
170 


STUDIES  IN   THE  MAJOR  PROPHETS  171 

Isaiah. — The  first  of  the  prophetic  books  is  Isaiah. 
This  great  prophet  was  a  citizen  of  Jerusalem,  a  man  of 
distinction,  and  a  preacher  of  impressive  power.  His  con- 
temporaries in  the  prophetic  office  were  Hosea  and  Micah, 
whose  work  will  come  under  review  later.  As  the  intro- 
duction to  his  prophecies  tells  us,  he  lived  "in  the  days 
of  Uzziah,  Jotham,  Ahaz,  and  Hezekiah,  Kings  of 
Judah."1 

This  statement  enables  us  to  reproduce  the  political  and 
religious  conditions  under  which  Isaiah  received  his  pro- 
phetic call.  It  was  the  second  half  of  the  eighth  century 
before  our  era  (758-690  B.C.).  As  we  learn  from  2  Kings 
and  2  Chronicles,  as  well  as  from  the  historical  part  of  the 
prophecy  itself  (chapters  36-39),  it  was  a  period  of  great 
commotion.  The  kings  of  Judah  warred  against  the 
Philistines  and  the  Ammonites.  Ahaz  suffered  a  severe 
defeat  at  the  hands  of  Israel.  Though  the  temple  worship 
was  kept  up,  abominable  idolatries  at  times  prevailed. 

Furthermore,  it  was  a  time  of  world  movements,  —  of 
restless  and  insatiable  activity  among  the  great  empires  of 
the  Orient.  Assyria,  Babylon,  and  Egypt  were  continually 
plotting  or  warring  against  one  another.  Assyrian  con- 
querors repeatedly  swept  over  Syria;  and  in  722  B.C. 
Sargon  captured  Samaria  and  forever  put  an-  end  to  the 
kingdom  of  Israel.  Judah  was  henceforth  left  alone  to 

i  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  OF  IMPORTANT  EVENTS 

B.C. 

740.   Call  of  Isaiah. 

732.   Damascus  taken  by  Tiglath-pileser. 

727.   Shalmaneser  IV. 

722.  Samaria  captured  by  Sargon. 

701.   Sennacherib's  campaign  against  Judah. 

607.   Destruction  of  Nineveh  by  the  Medes. 

586.   Destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadnezzar. 

538.  Cyrus  captures  Babylon,  and  releases  Jewish  exiles. 


172  4 AT  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

be  the  bearer  of  the  religion  of  Jehovah.  Subsequently 
its  territory  was  invaded  by  the  conquering  arms  of  Sen- 
nacherib ;  and  Judah  was  saved  only  by  a  fatal  pestilence 
that  in  a  single  night  swept  away  a  large  part  of  the 
Assyrian  army. 

Occasion  of  Prophecies.  —  As  already  indicated,  the  proph- 
ecies of  Isaiah  extended  through  the  reigns  of  three 
Kings  of  Judah.  From  first  to  last,  .they  covered  a  period 
of  about  fifty  years.  The  several  discourses,  which  com- 
pose the  book  of  Isaiah,  were  called  forth  by  particular 
religious  or  political  conditions.  They  were  intended  to 
guide  the  thought  and  action  of  the  Hebrew  people  in 
particular  exigencies.  It  is  perfectly  clear,  therefore,  that 
a  knowledge  of  the  occasion  will  throw  light  upon  the 
words  of  the  prophet. 

It  is  unfortunate  that  the  numerous  separate  discourses 
are  not  arranged  in  a  chronological  order.  They  are,  in 
the  main,  grouped  by  subjects.  They  maybe  conveniently 
divided  into  seven  groups  as  follows :  — 

1.  Discourses  relating  to  Judah  and    Israel  (chapters 

1-12). 

2.  Discourses   dealing  with  foreign  nations   (chapters 

13-23). 

3.  Picture  of  a  world  judgment  (chapters  24-27). 

4.  Discourses  relating  to  Judah  and  Assyria  (chapters 

28-33). 

5.  Future    of   Edom   and    Israel   contrasted  (chapters 

34,  35)- 

6.  Historical    section    based    on    2    Kings    (chapters 

36-39). 

7.  Israel's  restoration  from  exile  in  Babylon  (chapters 
40-66). 


STUDIES  IN  THE  MAJOR  PROPHETS  173 

Isaiah's  Call.  —  The  various  conditions  and  emergencies 
in  the  history  of  his  people  Isaiah  met  with  a  broad,  patri- 
otic, and  righteous  spirit.  Like  the  other  prophets  of 
Judah  and  Israel,  he  regarded  himself  as  a  messenger  of 
the  Lord.  In  the  sixth  chapter  he  gives  us  an  account 
of  his  call  to  the  prophetic  office.  He  had  a  vision  of  the 
Lord.  In  antiphonal  songs  of  praise,  the  seraphim  cried  : 
"Holy,  holy,  holy,  is  the  Lord  of  Hosts;  the  whole  earth 
is  full  of  His  glory.  And  the  foundations  of  the  thresholds 
were  moved  at  the  voice  of  him  that  cried,  and  the  house 
was  filled  with  smoke.  Then  said  I,  Woe  is  me !  for  I  am 
undone ;  because  I  am  a  man  of  unclean  lips,  and  I  dwell 
in  the  midst  of  a  people  of  unclean  lips:  for  mine  eyes 
have  seen  the  King,  the  Lord  of  hosts. 

"  Then  flew  one  of  the  seraphim  unto  me,  having  a  live 
coal  in  his  hand,  which  he  had  taken  with  the  tongs  from 
off  the  altar :  and  he  touched  my  mouth  with  it,  and  said, 
Lo,  this  hath  touched  thy  lips ;  and  thine  iniquity  is  taken 
away,  and  thy  sin  purged.  And  I  heard  the  voice  of  the 
Lord,  saying,  Whom  shall  I  send,  and  who  will  go  for  us  ? 
Then  I  said,  Here  am  I ;  send  me."  The  vision  of  the 
King  and  the  sound  of  his  voice,  —  that  was  the  secret  of 
the  prophet's  preaching  and  power. 

The  Great  Arraignment.  —  It  will  not  be  practicable  here 
to  follow  each  one  of  the  discourses  making  up  the  book 
of  Isaiah.  Such  an  undertaking  belongs  to  a  commentary 
or  a  more  extended  work  on  the  Old  Testament.  It  will 
be  sufficient  here  to  examine  two  or  three  typical  discourses, 
and  to  point  out  the  spirit  and  manner  of  the  prophet. 

We  begin  with  the  first  chapter,  which  has  been  called 
the  great  arraignment  of  Judah.  The  time  seems  to  be  the 
reign  of  Ahaz,  who,  as  we  learn  from  2  Kings  16,  "  did  not 
that  which  was  right  in  the  eyes  of  the  Lord  his  God,  like 


174  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

David  his  father.  But  he  walked  in  the  way  of  the  Kings 
of  Israel,  yea,  and  made  his  sons  pass  through  the  fire, 
according  to  the  abominations  of  the  heathen,  whom  the 
Lord  cast  out  before  the  children  of  Israel.  And  he  sacri- 
ficed and  burnt  incense  in  the  high  places,  and  on  the  hills, 
and  under  every  green  tree." 

It  was  in  the  presence  of  this  official  and  public  idolatry 
that  Isaiah  addressed  his  great  arraignment  to  the  Hebrew 
people.  His  eloquent  words  are  surcharged  with  emotion. 
"  Hear,  O  heavens,  and  give  ear,  O  earth,  for  the  Lord 
hath  spoken :  I  have  nourished  and  brought  up  children, 
and  they  have  rebelled  against  me.  The  ox  knoweth  his 
owner,  and  the  ass  his  master's  crib  :  but  Israel  doth  not 
know,  my  people  doth  not  consider.  Ah  sinful  nation,  a 
people  laden  with  iniquity,  a  seed  of  evil-doers,  children 
that  deal  corruptly :  they  have  forsaken  the  Lord,  they 
have  despised  the  Holy  One  of  Israel,  they  are  estranged 
and  gone  backward." 

This  indictment,  which  is  more  extended  than  here  given, 
the  rulers  are  supposed  to  have  met  by  referring  to  the 
regularity  and  splendor  of  the  temple  service.  They 
brought  forward  their  assemblies  and  sacrifices  as  a  proof 
of  their  loyalty  to  Jehovah.  To  these  statements  the 
prophet,  who  takes  his  stand  on  the  ethical  character  of 
religion,  replies  in  the  name  of  Jehovah  :  "  To  what  pur- 
pose is  the  multitude  of  your  sacrifices  unto  me  ?  saith  the 
Lord :  I  am  full  of  the  burnt  offerings  of  rams,  and  the  fat 
of  fed  beasts ;  and  I  delight  not  in  the  blood  of  bullocks, 
or  of  lambs,  or  of  he-goats.  ,  .  .  Wash  you,  make  you 
clean ;  put  away  the  evil  of  your  doings  from  before  mine 
eyes;  cease  to  do  evil;  learn  to  do  well;  seek  judgment, 
relieve  the  oppressed,  judge  the  fatherless,  plead  for  the 
widow." 


STUDIES  IN   THE  MAJOR  PROPHETS  175 

After  this  indignant  rejection  of  a  splendid  ceremonial 
service  that  was  not  associated  with  holiness  of  heart  and 
life,  the  Lord  is  represented,  in  the  next  paragraph,  as 
tenderly  pleading  with  the  people.  "  Come  now,  and  let 
us  reason  together,  saith  the  Lord  :  though  your  sins  be 
as  scarlet,  they  shall  be  white  as  snow ;  though  they  be 
red  like  crimson,  they  shall  be  as  wool.  If  ye  be  willing 
and  obedient,  ye  shall  eat  the  good  of  the  land ;  but  if  ye 
refuse  and  rebel,  ye  shall  be  devoured  with  the  sword :  for 
the  mouth  of  the  Lord  hath  spoken  it." 

When  it  quickly  appears  that  this  tender  pleading  is  of 
no  avail,  the  prophet  breaks  forth  in  lamentation  and  re- 
proach :  "  How  is  the  faithful  city  become  an  harlot !  she 
that  was  full  of  judgment!  righteousness  lodged  in  her, 
but  now  murderers.  Thy  silver  is  become  dross,  thy  wine 
mixed  with  water.  Thy  princes  are  rebellious,  and  com- 
panions of  thieves  ;  every  one  loveth  gifts,  and  followeth 
after  rewards  ;  they  judge  not  the  fatherless,  neither  doth 
the  cause  of  the  widow  come  unto  them." 

This  discourse,  well  ordered  in  all  its  parts,  concludes 
with  a  menace  of  judgment,  by  which  the  evil-doers  of  the 
nation  would  be  destroyed,  and  the  people  restored  to 
their  former  loyalty  to  Jehovah.  This  judgment  probably 
found  its  fulfilment,  partly  at  least,  in  the  war  which  the 
allied  kings  of  Syria  and  Israel  waged  against  Ahaz. 

Other  interesting  passages  in  part  first  will  be  found 
indicated  in  the  research  work  at  the  end  of  this  chapter. 

Discourses  of  Doom.  —  The  second  division  of  the  proph- 
ecies of  Isaiah  is  devoted,  not  to  Judah  and  Israel,  but 
to  neighboring  nations.  As  we  have  already  learned,  the 
Hebrew  people  belonged  to  a  group  of  kingdoms  which 
extended  from  Ethiopia  to  Assyria.  At  one  time  or  an- 
other the  children  of  Israel  stood  in  close  political  or  com- 


176  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

mercial  relations  with  them  all.  As  the  great  prophet 
studies  their  character,  and  discerns  their  elements  of 
weakness,  he  announces  the  destiny  that  severally  awaits 
them. 

The  first  of  these  doom  discourses,  as  we  may  call  them, 
is  directed  against  Babylon.  For  its  iniquity  it  is  to  be 
destroyed  by  the  anger  of  the  Lord.  It  is  to  be  given 
over  to  utter  desolation  —  a  prediction  that  has  been  long 
since  fulfilled.  "  And  Babylon,  the  glory  of  kingdoms,  the 
beauty  of  the  Chaldeans'  pride,  shall  be  as  when  God  over- 
threw Sodom  and  Gomorrah.  It  shall  never  be  inhabited, 
neither  shall  it  be  dwelt  in  from  generation  to  generation : 
neither  shall  the  Arabian  pitch  tent  there;  neither  shall 
shepherds  make  their  flocks  to  lie  down  there.  But  wild 
beasts  of  the  desert  shall  lie  there  ;  and  their  houses  shall  be 
full  of  doleful  creatures ;  and  ostriches  shall  dwell  there, 
and  he-goats  shall  dance  there.  And  wolves  shall  cry  in 
their  castles,  and  jackals  in  the  pleasant  palaces  :  and  her 
time  is  near  to  come,  and  her  days  shall  not  be  prolonged."  1 

This  is  a  type  of  the  dooms  pronounced  in  succession 
against  Philistia,  Moab,  Damascus,  Egypt,  Arabia,  and 
Tyre. 

Return  from  Exile.  —  The  next  four  sections  are  passed 
over  with  mere  mention.  Their  general  character  has 
already  been  pointed  out.  The  historical  section  (chapters 
36-39)  differs  but  little  from  the  corresponding  narrative 
in  2  Kings  (chapters  18-20),  from  which  it  was  evidently 
taken.  It  deals  with  Sennacherib's  demand  for  the  surren- 
der of  Jerusalem,  Hezekiah's  illness  and  cure,  and  other 
events  in  which  Isaiah  was  concerned. 

The  final  section  (chapters  40-66)  is  one  of  great  in- 
terest It  is  a  single  sustained  discourse  relating  to  Israel's 

1  Is.  13  :  19-22. 


TOWER  OF  BABEL 


STUDIES  IN   THE  MAJOR  PROPHETS  177 

restoration  from  Babylonian  captivity.  The  nature  of  the 
prophecy,  as  well  as  its  peculiarity  of  style,  shows  that  it  is 
of  later  date  than  the  preceding  parts  of  the  book. 
Though  formerly  supposed  to  be  the  work  of  Isaiah,  it  is 
now  generally  conceded  by  our  ablest  biblical  scholars  that 
it  comes  from  another  and  later  hand.  This  later  author, 
whose  extraordinary  ability  is  recognized  by  all  competent 
students,  is  sometimes  referred  to  as  "  the  Great  Unknown." 

This  lengthy  discourse  may  be  divided  into  three  parts, 
which  together  make  one  great  forcible  presentation  of 
truth.  First  of  all  the  prophet  emphasizes  (chapters  40- 
48)  the  certainty  of  the  coming  release  from  exile.  This  cer- 
tainty is  based  on  the  power  and  promises  of  Jehovah. 
Cyrus  is  named  as  the  divine  instrument  of  deliverance,  — 
a  fact  showing  that  God  has  His  agents,  not  alone  among 
the  Chosen  People,  but  also  among  the  Gentile  nations. 

The  second  part  (chapters  49-59)  of  this  final  discourse  is 
an  exhortation  to  moral  fitness  for  the  restoration  and  future 
glory  of  Israel.  This  exhortation  is  accompanied  by  glow- 
ing passages  of  promise  and  encouragement.  "  Sing,  O 
Heavens,"  exclaims  the  prophet,  "  and  be  joyful,  O  earth ; 
and  break  forth  into  singing,  O  mountains  :  for  the  Lord 
hath  comforted  His  people,  and  will  have  compassion  upon 
His  afflicted."1 

The  Servant  of  the  Lord.  —  Nowhere  else  in  the  prophet- 
ical writings  do  we  reach  greater  depths  of  spiritual  insight 
than  in  this  part  of  Isaiah.  For  the  first  time  we  are 
brought  face  to  face  with  a  marvellous  divine  law,  which 
has  been  operative  in  all  ages  of  human  history.  That 
law  is  the  omnipresent  fact  of  vicarious  suffering,  of 
triumph  through  defeat,  of  blessings  in  the  guise  of  sor- 
rows, of  the  higher  attained  through  the  death  of  the 

1  Is.  49 :  13- 


I y8  .4 AT   INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

lower.  In  the  famous  fifty-third  chapter  of  Isaiah,  which 
stands  out  with  startling  distinctness  in  the  writings  of  the 
Old  Testament,  this  law  is  clearly  presented. 

In  the  closing  verses  of  the  fifty-second  chapter  and 
throughout  the  fifty-third  chapter,  Israel  is  individualized- 
as  the  servant  of  the  Lord.  With  a  sublime  play  of  t  the 
prophet's  imagination,  the  nations  are  made  to  inquire,  as 
they  dwell  on  Israel's  history,  "  Who  hath  believed  that 
which  we  have  heard  ?  and  to  whom  hath  the  arm  of  the 
Lord  been  revealed?  For  he  grew  up  before  Him  as  a 
tender  plant,  and  as  a  root  out  of  a  dry  ground  :  he  hath 
no  form  nor  comeliness ;  and  when  we  see  him,  there  is 
no  beauty  that  we  should  desire  him.  He  was  despised 
and  rejected  of  men  ;  a  man  of  sorrows,  and  acquainted 
with  grief :  and  as  one  from  whom  men  hide  their  face  he 
was  despised,  and  we  esteemed  him  not." 

But  what  is  it  that  the  servant  of  the  Lord  has  accom- 
plished in  all  his  lowliness,  deformity,  and  suffering  ? 
The  nations  are  again  represented  as  discerning  the  world 
significance  of  Israel's  redemptive  mission :  "  Surely  he 
hath  borne  our  griefs,  and  carried  our  sorrows  :  yet  we  did 
esteem  him  stricken,  smitten  of  God,  and  afflicted.  But 
he  was  wounded  for  our  transgressions,  he  was  bruised  for 
our  iniquities :  the  chastisement  of  our  peace  was  upon 
him;  and  with  his  stripes  are  we  healed.  All  we  like 
sheep  have  gone  astray ;  we  have  turned  every  one  to  his 
own  way ;  and  the  Lord  hath  laid  on  him  the  iniquity  of 
us  all." 

And  what  is   to   be  the  ultimate    outcome  of   all  this 

humiliation  and  suffering  for  Israel  ?     The  Lord  Himself 

gives  the  answer,  announcing  the  triumph  of  suffering : 

"  Behold,  my  servant  shall  prosper,  he  shall  be  exalted  and 

/  lifted  up,  and  shall  be  very  high.     Like  as  many  were  as- 


STUDIES  IN   THE  MAJOR  PROPHETS  179 

tonished  at  thee  (his  visage  was  so  marred  more  than  any 
man,  and  his  form  more  than  the  sons  of  men),  so  shall  he 
sprinkle  many  nations ;  kings  shall  shut  their  mouths  at 
him  ;  for  that  which  had  not  been  told  them  shall  they 
see  ;  and  that  which  they  had  not  heard  shall  they  under- 
stand." l 

All  this  has  found  its  highest  fulfilment  in  the  gospel  of 
Christ.  His  life  is  a  perfect  exemplification  of  the  law  of 
vicarious  suffering — of  salvation  through  death.  And 
hence  Christian  writers  have  made  no  mistake  in  trans- 
ferring the  language  of  the  great  unknown  prophet  to  the 
Saviour  of  mankind.  The  fifty-third  chapter  of  Isaiah  is 
the  most  perfect  statement  of  evangelical  truth  to  be  found 
in  the  Old  Testament. 

Triumphant  Faith.  —  In  one  point  Isaiah  and  "  the 
Great  Unknown "  are  alike.  Whatever  may  be  their 
menace  of  righteous  judgment  for  sin,  there  is  always  a 
word  of  hope  for  the  final  results.  Their  faith  in  God  is 
always  triumphant.  In  the  midst  of  words  of  judgment 
against  Israel  and  Judah,  we  find  this  picture  of  the  uni- 
versal prevalence  of  Israel's  religion:  "And  it  shall  come 
to  pass  in  the  latter  days,  that  the  mountain  of  the  Lord's 
house  shall  be  established  in  the  top  of  the  mountains, 
and  shall  be  exalted  above  the  hills ;  and  all  nations  shall 
flow  unto  it.  ...  And  they  shall  beat  their  swords  into 
ploughshares,  and  their  spears  into  pruning-hooks :  nation 
shall  not  lift  up  sword  against  nation,  neither  shall  they 
learn  war  any  more."2 

In  like  manner  the  nameless  prophet  closes  his  discourse 
with  a  picture  of  Israel's  future  glory.     Beyond  the  ap- 
proaching restoration  through  the  magnanimity  of  Cyrus, 
there  lies  a  golden  age  for  Zion :  "  The  nations  shall  see 
i  is.  52: 13-15.  2  is.  2:2,4. 


180  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

thy  righteousness,  and  all  kings  thy  glory :  and  thou  shalt 
be  called  by  a  new  name,  which  the  mouth  of  the  Lord 
shall  name.  Thou  shalt  also  be  a  crown  of  beauty  in  the 
hand  of  the  Lord,  and  a  royal  diadem  in  the  hand  of  thy 
God."1 

Poetic  Gifts.  —  The  admirable  intellectual  gifts  of  Isaiah 
have  been  shown  in  the  passages  quoted.  No  other  writer 
of  the  Old  Testament  surpasses  him  in  mental  vigor  and 
emotional  power.  His  discourses  often  exhibit  a  rare  elo- 
quence, in  which  logical  thought  is  enriched  by  poetic 
imagery.  In  the  words  of  Driver  :  "  Isaiah's  poetical  gen- 
ius is  superb.  His  characteristics  are  grandeur  and  beauty 
of  conception,  wealth  of  imagination,  vividness  of  illustra- 
tion, compressed  energy  and  splendor  of  diction."2  Al- 
most any  discourse  of  Isaiah  may  be  cited  in  illustration. 

Jeremiah.  —  About  seventy  years  after  the  death  of 
Isaiah,  the  prophetic  call  came  to  Jeremiah,  the  second  of 
the  great  prophets  of  Israel.  As  we  are  informed  in  the 
opening  statements  of  his  prophecy,  this  call  came  to  him 
in  the  thirteenth  year  (626  B.C.)  of  King  Josiah,  and  con- 
tinued for  nearly  fifty  years  through  the  subsequent  reigns 
of  Jehoiakim  and  Zedekiah.  His  heroic  voice  was  not 
silenced  till  the  people  whom  he  had  tried  to  save  were 
carried  away  by  Nebuchadnezzar.3 

1  IS.  62:  2,  3. 

2  S.  R.  Driver,  "  Literature  of  the  Old  Testament,"  p.  227. 

3  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  OF  IMPORTANT  EVENTS 

B.C. 

626.  Call  of  Jeremiah. 

621.  Discovery  of  Deuteronomy,  and  Josiah's  reformation. 

609.  Jehoahaz. 

608.  Jehoiakim. 

597.  Jehoiachim,  and  first  siege  of  Jerusalem. 

596.  Zedekiah. 

586.  Destruction  of  Jerusalem,  and  second  deportation  of  Jewish  exiles. 


STUDIES  IN   THE  MAJOR  PROPHETS  181 

When  the  prophetic  call  came  to  him,  his  sensitive 
nature  recoiled  from  the  heavy  task  laid  upon  him.  "  Ah, 
Lord  God  !  behold,"  he  exclaimed,  "  I  cannot  speak,  for  I 
am  a  child."  But  divine  preparation,  as  in  every  age, 
came  with  the  call.  "  Then  the  Lord  put  forth  His  hand, 
and  touched  my  mouth ;  and  the  Lord  said  unto  me,  Be- 
hold, I  have  put  My  words  in  thy  mouth  :  see,  I  have  this 
day  set  thee  over  the  nations  and  over  the  kingdoms,  to 
pluck  up  and  to  break  down,  and  to  destroy  and  to  over- 
throw; to  build,  and  to  plant."  l 

Heroic  Character. — Jeremiah  was  placed  in  an  exceed- 
ingly trying  position ;  but  in  the  presence  of  difficulty  and 
danger  he  displayed  a  heroic  spirit.  It  was  his  thankless 
task  to  reprove  the  people  of  Judah  for  their  sins,  and  to 
announce  to  them,  in  the  absence  of  repentance  and  refor- 
mation, the  impending  destruction  at  the  hands  of  their 
enemies.  This  message  he  proclaimed  with  tireless  faith- 
fulness. 

In  the  twenty-sixth  chapter  we  have  a  graphic  portrayal 
of  Jeremiah's  preaching  and  its  dangerous  results.  He 
took  his  stand  in  the  court  of  the  temple ;  and  to  the 
crowds  gathering  there  from  all  parts  of  Judah,  he  de- 
clared, "  Thus  saith  the  Lord  :  if  ye  will  not  hearken 
to  Me,  to  walk  in  My  law,  which  I  have  set  before 
you,  .  .  .  then  will  I  make  this  house  like  Shiloh,2  and 
will  make  this  city  a  curse  to  all  the  nations  of  the 
earth." 


1  Jer.  i :  9,  10. 

2  "  Shiloh  lay  about  thirty  miles  straight  north  of  Jerusalem;  and  though  once 
the  national  sanctuary,  famous  from  the  memories  of  Eli  and  the  great  prophet 
Samuel,  had  bgen  in  ruins  for  five  hundred  years.     To  predict  a  similar  fate  for 
the  magnificent  building  in  whose  courts  they  stood,  was  more  than  the  priests  and 
prophets,  or  the  crowd,  could  endure."  —  GEIKIE,  "Hours  with  the  Bible,"  Vol. 
V.,  p.  326. 


182  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

This  denunciation  of  the  unfaithfulness  of  the  people,  and 
this  prediction  of  coming  disaster,  greatly  enraged  the 
priests.  They  laid  violent  hands  on  the  bold  prophet, 
dragged  him  before  a  court  of  the  princes,  and  declared 
him  worthy  of  death.  When  Jeremiah  was  permitted  to 
speak  a  word  in  his  own  defence,  the  fearless  heroism  of 
the  prophet  asserted  itself.  There  was  no  shirking  of  re- 
sponsibility, and  no  softening  of  his  message.  "  The  Lord 
sent  me,"  he  said,  "  to  prophesy  against  this  house  and 
against  this  city  all  the  words  that  ye  have  heard.  There- 
fore now  amend  your  ways  and  your  doings,  and  obey  the 
voice  of  the  Lord  your  God ;  and  the  Lord  will  repent  Him 
of  the  evil  that  He  hath  pronounced  against  you.  But  as 
for  me,  behold,  I  am  in  your  hand :  do  with  me  as  is  good 
and  right  in  your  eyes."  It  is  to  the  honor  of  the  princes 
that,  closing  their ^ears  to  priestly  clamors,  they  pronounced 
the  prophet  guiltless. 

Human  Weakness.  —  Yet  with  all  his  heroism  in  the 
presence  of  death,  Jeremiah  was  only  human.  He  was  re- 
peatedly persecuted,  put  in  stocks,  and  cast  into  prison. 
His  message  was  unheeded,  and  he  himself  was  made  a 
laughing-stock ;  and  if,  under  these  discouraging  circum- 
stances, he  attempted  to  keep  silent,  his  conscience  became 
a  torture.  "  And  if  I  say,"  he  complains,  "  that  I  will  not 
speak  any  more  in  His  name,  then  there  is  in  my  heart  as 
it  were  a  burning  fire  shut  up  in  my  bones."  1 

In  his  sore  tribulations  within  and  without,  he  fell  into 
the  gloom  of  Job.  Life  became  a  grievous  burden ;  and 
like  the  Arabian  chieftain,  Jeremiah  lamented  his  birth. 
"  Cursed  be  the  day  wherein  I  was  born  :  let  not  the  day 
wherein  my  mother  bare  me  be  blessed."  2  Yet  this  de- 
spair was  only  a  passing  mood  ;  and  throughout  his  long 

1  Jer.  20 : 9.  2  Jer.  20 : 14. 


STUDIES  IN   THE  MAJOR  PROPHETS  183 

career  as  a  public  preacher,  he  never  proved  faithless  to 
his  calling. 

Prophecies  Written.  —  In  the  thirty-sixth  chapter  we 
have  an  interesting  account  of  the  original  writing  of 
Jeremiah's  prophecies.  There  are  few  prophetical  writ- 
ings in  regard  to  which  this  information  is  so  definite.  In 
the  fourth  year  of  Jehoiakim  (604  B.C.),  after  the  prophet 
had  been  preaching  for  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  century,  he 
was  moved  to  commit  his  discourses  to  writing.  Their  oral 
delivery  had  not  been  attended  with  the  reformation  desired 
and  hoped  for ;  accordingly  he  conceived  the  idea  that 
they  might  be  more  effective  in  written  form.  "  It  may 
be,"  the  Lord  is  made  to  say,  "  that  the  house  of  Judah  will 
hear  all  the  evil  which  1  purpose  to  do  unto  them ;  that 
they  may  turn  every  man  from  his  evil  way." 

Calling  Baruch,  his  friend  and  disciple,  to  act  as  scribe, 
Jeremiah  dictated  to  him  the  substance  of  his  long  series 
of  discourses.  The  prophet  then  directed  Baruch  to  read 
"  the  words  of  the  Lord  "  in  the  temple.  When  the  matter 
was  reported  to  the  princes,  they  summoned  the  scribe  to 
read  the  roll  in  their  presence.  The  princes  were  touched 
by  the  eloquent  denunciations  and  affectionate  pleadings 
of  the  prophet,  "  and  they  told  all  the  words  in  the  ears  of 
the  king." 

The  king  ordered  the  roll  to  be  brought ;  but  when  it 
was  read  in  his  presence,  his  proud  heart  was  stirred  with 
anger,  and  seizing  the  roll,  he  slashed  it  with  his  knife  and 
cast  it  into  the  fire.  He  gave  orders  for  the  seizure  of  the 
daring  prophet  and  scribe  ;  but  foreseeing  danger,  they  had 
prudently  concealed  themselves.  But  the  prophet's  tongue 
could  not  be  silenced ;  and  in  spite  of  the  king's  anger,  he 
dictated  his  prophecies  a  second  time ;  "  and  there  were 
added  besides  unto  them  many  like  words." 


1 84  47V  INTRODUCTION   TO   BIBLE  STUDY 

It  is  this  second  roll  or  book  that  no  doubt  forms  the 
basis  of  the  present  prophecies  of  Jeremiah.  The  arrange- 
ment has  been  changed,  and  many  other  subsequent  dis- 
courses have  been  added.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the 
discourses  are  not  arranged  in  chronological  order  ;  but  in 
most  cases,  through  direct  statement  or  incidental  historical 
reference,  we  are  able  to  determine  the  time  and  occasion 
of  the  prophet's  words. 

Prophetic  Message.  —  Jeremiah  is  a  fine  embodiment  of 
the  Hebrew  prophetic  spirit.  His  mission  was  definite  and 
limited ;  but  within  the  scope  of  his  work  he  was  faithful, 
indefatigable,  and  courageous.  Sin  and  judgment  —  these 
were  the  two  principal  themes  of  his  discourses,  which 
were  repeated,  illustrated,  and  enforced  in  a  great  variety 
of  forms. 

He  was  filled  with  the  spirit  of  the  book  of  Deuteronomy. 
Indeed,  after  the  discovery  of  the  law  in  the  temple  and 
the  inauguration  of  reforms  under  Josiah,  Jeremiah  was 
sent  on  a  preaching  tour  throughout  the  cities  of  Judah. 
In  the  eleventh  chapter  we  have  the  burden  of  his  preach- 
ing, in  which  the  spirit  of  the  Deuteronomist  will  be  readily 
recognized  :  "  And  the  Lord  said  unto  me,  A  conspiracy 
is  found  among  the  men  of  Judah,  and  among  the  inhabit- 
ants of  Jerusalem.  They  are  turned  back  to  the  iniquities 
of  their  forefathers  ;  and  they  are  gone  after  other  gods  to 
serve  them ;  the  house  of  Israel  and  the  house  of  Judah 
have  broken  My  covenant  which  I  made  with  their  fathers. 
Therefore  thus  saith  the  Lord,  Behold,  I  will  bring  evil 
upon  them,  which  they  shall  not  be  able  to  escape ;  and 
they  shall  cry  unto  Me,  but  I  will  not  hearken  unto  them." 
This  is  the  substance  of  the  message  repeated  again  and 
again. 

Conditional  Prophecy.  —  Yet  Jeremiah's  denunciation  of 


STUDIES  IN   THE  MAJOR  PROPHETS  185 

woes  upon  Judah  was  never  unconditional.  Through  re- 
pentance and  reformation  there  was  always  a  way  of  escape. 
This  is  made  perfectly  plain  in  the  eighteenth  chapter,  in 
which  the  relation  of  Jehovah  to  His  people  is  compared  to 
that  of  a  potter  and  his  work.  "  At  what  instant,"  the 
Lord  is  made  to  say,  "  I  shall  speak  concerning  a  nation, 
and  concerning  a  kingdom,  to  pluck  up  and  to  break  down 
and  to  destroy  it ;  if  that  nation,  concerning  which  I  have 
spoken,  turn  from  their  evil,  I  will  repent  of  the  evil  that  I 
thought  to  do  unto  them." 

Of  course  the  reverse  of  this  divine  attitude  is  true. 
"  And  at  what  instant  I  shall  speak  concerning  a  nation, 
and  concerning  a  kingdom,  to  build  and  to  plant  it ;  if  it 
do  evil  in  My  sight,  that  it  obey  not  My  voice,  then  will  I 
repent  of  the  good,  wherewith  I  said  I  would  benefit  them." 
It  will  be  observed  that  this  double  principle  is  operative 
to-day  through  the  processes  of  natural  law. 

Captivity  Predicted.  —  For  many  years  the  evils  predicted 
for  Judah  remained  somewhat  indefinite.  The  prophet 
went  no  farther  than  to  name  a  foe  from  the  north.  But 
after  the  great  battle  of  Carchemish  in  604  B.C.,  at  which 
Nebuchadnezzar  won  a  decisive  victory  over  Pharaoh-Necho 
of  Egypt,  the  clear-visioned  prophet  discerned  the  pre- 
eminence which  Babylon  was  to  achieve.  He' recognized 
the  sources  from  which  the  downfall  of  Judah  was  to  come. 

Accordingly,  in  the  twenty-fifth  chapter,  Jeremiah 
specifically  predicts  the  coming  overthrow  of  Judah.  "Be- 
cause ye  have  not  heard  My  words,"  he  represents  the 
Lord  as  saying,  "  I  will  send  unto  Nebuchadnezzar  the 
King  of  Babylon,  My  servant,  and  will  bring  them  against 
this  land,  and  against  the  inhabitants  thereof,  and  against 
all  these  nations  round  about ;  and  I  will  utterly  destroy 
them,  and  make  them  an  astonishment,  and  an  hissing,  and 


1 86  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

perpetual  desolations.  Moreover  I  will  take  from  them  the 
voice  of  mirth  and  the  voice  of  gladness,  the  voice  of  the 
bridegroom  and  the  voice  of  the  bride,  the  sound  of 
the  millstones,  and  the  light  of  the  candle." 

Restoration.  —  But  the  gaze  of  the  prophet  extended 
beyond  the  captivity.  He  predicted  the  length  of  its,  con- 
tinuance. "  These  nations,"  he  declared,  "shall  serve  the 
King  of  Babylon  seventy  years.  And  it  shall  come  to 
pass,  when  seventy  years  are  accomplished,  that  I  will 
punish  the  King  of  Babylon  and  that  nation  for  their 
iniquity."  1 

So  confident  was  Jeremiah  of  the  future  restoration  of 
his  people  that  even  during  the  siege  of  Jerusalem  he 
bought  a  piece  of  land  in  his  native  town  of  Anathoth,  and 
took  extraordinary  precautions  to  preserve  the  title-deed 
till  the  evil  days  might  be  passed.  The  whole  transaction 
is  detailed  in  the  thirty-second  chapter,  and  affords  a 
pleasing  glimpse  of  the  business  methods  of  that  age. 
After  the  terms  of  purchase  had  been  agreed  on  with  his 
uncle,  the  prophet  "subscribed  the  deed,  and  sealed  it, 
and  called  witnesses,  and  weighed  him  the  money  in  the 
balances."  Afterwards  the  deed  was  placed  in  an  earthen 
vessel,  that  it  might  "  continue  many  days." 

The  New  Covenant  —  What  is  still  more  remarkable,  the 
prophet  discerned  the  spiritual  regeneration  that  was  to 
follow  the  captivity.  Through  the  fiery  trials  of  defeat 
and  captivity,  the  people  of  Israel  were  to  be  purified  and 
lifted  to  a  nobler  spiritual  life.  The  outward  covenant  of 
the  law  was  to  be  replaced  by  a  new  covenant  of  the 
heart  Of  this  new  spiritual  covenant,  which  consisted  in 
a  love  of  truth  and  righteousness,  there  was  to  be  no 
end. 

1  Jer.  25 :  12. 


STUDIES  IN   THE  MAJOR  PROPHETS  187 

The  new  covenant  is  one  of  the  mountain  tops  of  pro- 
phetic insight  and  inspiration.  "  Behold,  the  days  come, 
saith  the  Lord,  that  I  will  make  a  new  covenant  with  the 
house  of  Israel,  and  with  the  house  of  Judah :  not  accord- 
ing to  the  covenant  that  I  made  with  their  fathers  in  the 
day  that  I  took  them  by  the  hand  to  bring  them  out  of  the 
land  of  Egypt ;  which  My  covenant  they  broke,  although 
I  was  an  husband  unto  them,  saith  the  Lord. 

"  But  this  is  the  covenant  that  I  will  make  with  the 
house  of  Israel  after  those  days,  saith  the  Lord  :  I  will 
put  My  law  in  their  inward  parts,  and  in  their  heart  will  I 
write  it;  and  I  will  be  their  God,  and  they  shall  be  My 
people ;  and  they  shall  teach  no  more  every  man  his 
neighbor,  and  every  man  his  brother,  saying,  Know  the 
Lord :  for  they  shall  all  know  Me,  from  the  least  of  them 
unto  the  greatest  of  them."  l 

Prophecies  of  Doom.  —  Like  the  book  of  Isaiah,  Jere- 
miah contains  a  number  of  prophecies  of  doom  (chapters 
46-51).  These  prophecies  are  directed  against  the  vari- 
ous nations  that  were  in  some  way  related  to  the  people  of 
Israel.  Among  these  are  Egypt,  Philistia,  Moab,  Ammon, 
and  Babylon. 

The  prophecy  against  Babylon  is  particularly  impas- 
sioned. It  is  characterized  by  an  implacable  Hebrew 
resentment.  "  And  Babylon  shall  become  heaps,  a  dwell- 
ing-place for  jackals,  an  astonishment  and  an  hissing,  with- 
out inhabitant.  .  .  .  Her  cities  are  become  a  desolation,  a 
dry  land,  and  a  desert,  a  land  wherein  no  man  dwelleth, 
neither  doth  any  son  of  man  pass  thereby."  2 

Last  Years.  —  When,  in  586  B.C.,  Jerusalem  was  cap- 
tured by  Nebuchadnezzar,  the  prophet  Jeremiah  was 
treated  with  distinction.  His  prophecies  were  not  un- 

.  l  Jer.  31 :  31-34.  2  jer.  51 :  37,  43. 


1 88  AN   INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

known  to  the  Babylonian  conqueror.  He  was  granted  his 
freedom,  and  given  permission  to  choose  his  place  of 
abode. 

A  little  later  he  was  forced  by  the  leaders  of  the  people, 
who  feared  vengeance  for  the  assassination  of  the  Babylon- 
ian governor  Gedaliah,  to  accompany  them  to  Egypt. 
The  prophet  had  opposed  the  expedition.  During  his  so- 
journ at  Tahpanhes,  he  foretold  the  doom  of  Egypt. 
Here  he  disappears  from  the  sacred  writings ;  but  an  old 
tradition  relates  that  he  was  stoned  to  death. 

The  fate  of  Jeremiah  was  that  of  many  other  heroic 
men  since  his  day.  His  brave,  unselfish  life  was  met  with 
indifference,  persecution,  and  suffering.  It  is  probable,  as 
we  have  just  seen,  that  he  died  a  martyr's  death.  Yet  he 
had  scarcely  passed  away,  when  the  fulfilment  of  his  proph- 
ecies established  the  inspired  greatness  of  the  man,  and 
by  a  quick  popular  reaction  he  was  exalted  to  a  position  of 
high  honor.  His  prophecies  were  diligently  studied  by 
the  exiles  in  Babylon ;  and  ever  since  he  has  been  es- 
teemed as  one  of  the  greatest  of  Hebrew  seers. 

Lamentations.  —  The  brief  book  of  Lamentations  is 
commonly  accredited  to  Jeremiah.  Though  his  author- 
ship of  the  book  has  been  seriously  questioned  by  some 
recent  scholars,  it  rests  on  a  very  old  tradition.  In  2 
Chronicles  (35  :  25)  Jeremiah  is  referred  to  as  the  author 
of  an  elegy  or  lamentation  on  Josiah,  —  a  fact  showing 
that  this  style  of  composition  was  not  foreign  to  him. 
The  book  dates  from  his  age ;  and  in  the  absence  of  posi- 
tive proof  to  the  contrary,  we  may  accept  the  ancient  tra- 
dition as  probably  true. 

The  general  theme  of  Lamentations  is  the  evil  that  be- 
fell Jerusalem  and  Judah  after  their  overthrow  by  Nebu- 
chadnezzar. The  contents  of  the  book  show  that  it  was 


STUDIES  IN   THE  MAJOR  PROPHETS  189 

written  not  long  after  that  event.  It  is  made  up  of  five 
separate  poems,  which  are  all  notably  artificial  in  structure. 
The  successive  stanzas  begin  with  the  letters  of  the  He- 
brew alphabet  in  regular  order,  thus  making  acrostic  or  ab- 
ecedarian poems.  As  the  Hebrew  alphabet  consists  of 
twenty-two  letters,  each  chapter,  except  the  third,  consists 
of  twenty-two  verses.  In  the  third  chapter,  three  succes- 
sive stanzas  begin  with  each  Hebrew  letter  in  order,  thus 
making  sixty-six  in  all. 

The  Separate  Poems.  —  Though  constructed  in  this  arti- 
ficial  manner,  the  successive  elegies  or  lamentations 
exhibit  unusual  literary  excellence.  We  feel  that  the  grief, 
in  spite  of  its  artificial  expression,  is  deep  and  genuine. 
The  poet  has  carefully  wrought  out,  in  artistic  form  and 
pathetic  metaphor,  his  overwhelming  sorrow  for  the  mis- 
fortunes of  Zion. 

The  first  poem  is  a  lament  over  the  downfall  and  deso- 
lation of  Jerusalem.  Listen  to  the  piteous  outcry  of  its 
beginning  r  — 

"  How  doth  the  city  sit  solitary  that  was  full  of  people! 

How  is  she  become  as  a  widow!  she  that  was  great  among  the 

nations, 
And  princess  among  the  provinces,  how  is  she  become  tributary. 

"  She  weepeth  sore  in  the  night,  and  her  tears  are  on  her  cheeks : 
Among  all  her  lovers  she  hath  none  to  comfort  her ; 
All  her  friends  have  dealt  treacherously  with  her,  they  are  become 
her  enemies. 

u  The  ways  of  Zion  do  mourn,  because  none  come  to  the  solemn  feasts  ; 
All  her  gates  are  desolate  :  her  priests  sigh, 
Her  virgins  are  afflicted,  and  she  is  in  bitterness." 

With  the  usual  spiritual  insight  of  the  ancient  Hebrew,  the 
poet  traces  the  calamities  of  Zion  to  the  sins  of  the  people. 


190  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

"  Jerusalem  hath  grievously  sinned,"  he  declares,  "  there- 
fore she  is  removed."  l 

The  main  theme  of  the  second  elegy  is  the  anger  of  the 
Lord.  There  is  a  graphic  picture  of  the  desolation  of 
Jerusalem,  as  if  written  by  an  eye-witness  :  — 

"  The  young  and  the  old  lie  on  the  ground  in  the  streets  : 

The  virgins  and  my  young  men  are  fallen  by  the  sword ; 
Thou  hast  slain  them  in  the  day  of  thine  anger ;  thou  hast  killed, 
and  not  pitied.1' 

The  third  elegy  laments  the  desolate  condition  of 
Jerusalem,  but  finds  a  ground  of  consolation  in  the  good- 
ness and  mercy  of  Jehovah.  The  poet  speaks  in  the  name 
of  the  people  :  — 

"  It  is  of  the  Lord's  mercies  that  we  are  not  consumed,  because  His 

compassions  fail  not. 

They  are  new  every  morning;  great  is  thy  faithfulness. 
The  Lord  is  my  portion,  saith  my  soul ;  therefore  will  I  hope  in 
Him. 

"The  Lord  is  good  unto  them  that  wait   for   Him,  to  the  soul  that 

seeketh  Him. 
It  is  good  that  a  man  should  both  hope  and  quietly  wait  for  the 

salvation  of  the  Lord. 
It  is  good  for  a  man  that  he  bear  the  yoke  in  his  youth." 

The  remaining  elegies  are  in  the  same  mournful  key. 
The  present  sad  condition  of  Zion  is  heightened  by  a 
contrast  with  its  former  glory.  The  series  of  poems  closes 
with  a  prayer  that  Jehovah  should  return  to  His  people, 
and  renew  their  former  glory. 

1  Lam.  i ;  8. 


STUDIES  IN   THE  MAJOR  PROPHETS  191 

RESEARCH  WORK 

ISAIAH 

The  great  arraignment,  Is.  i. 

The  future  preeminence  of  Jerusalem,  Is.  2  :  2-4. 

The  parable  of  the  vineyard,  Is.  5  :  1-7. 

Denunciation  of  woes  and  judgment,  Is.  5  :  8-30. 

The  prophet's  call,  Is.  6. 

Strophic  denunciation  of  Israel,  with  refrain,  Is.  9  :  8-10  :  4. 

The  ideal  prince  of  David's  line,  Is.  n  :  i-io. 

The  doom  of  Babylon,  Is.  13,  14. 

"The  burden  of  Moab,"  Is.  15,  16. 

The  doom  of  Egypt,  Is.  19,  20. 

The  overthrow  of  the  city  of  Tyre,  Is.  23. 

Picture  of  a  world  judgment,  Is.  24-27. 

Various  relations  of  Judah  to  Assyria,  Is.  28-33. 

An  address  to  women  at  ease,  Is.  32  :  9-20. 

Eloquent  contrast  of  Edom  and  Zion,  Is.  34,  35. 

Historical  section  from  2  Kings,  Is.  36-39. 

Israel's  restoration  from  exile,  Is.  40-66. 

1.  Its  certainty,  Is.  40-48. 

2.  Moral  preparation  for  it,  Is.  49-59. 
Vicarious  suffering,  Is.  52  :  13-53. 

3.  Future  felicity  of  Zion,  Is.  60-66. 

JEREMIAH 

The  call  of  Jeremiah,  Jer.  i. 

The  sins  of  Judah,  and  coming  judgment,  Jer.  2-6. 

Eloquent  sermon  in  the  temple,  Jer.  7-9. 

Contrast  between  idols  and  Jehovah,  Jer.  10. 

Discourse  after  the  finding  of  the  law,  Jer.  n,  12. 

A  symbolical  prophecy,  Jer.  13. 

Prophecy  on  the  occasion  of  a  drought,  Jer.  14-17. 

Lessons  from  the  potter,  Jer.  18-19. 

Persecution  and  gloom,  Jer.  20. 

The  prophet  consulted  by  the  king,  Jer.  21. 

Judgment  of  successive  rulers,  Jer.  22,  23. 

Good  and  bad  figs,  Jer.  24. 

The  seventy  years'  captivity  predicted,  Jer.  25. 


.4  TV  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 


Preaching  and  persecution,  Jer.  26. 

Yokes  employed  in  emblem  prophecies,  Jer.  27,  28. 

The  prophet's  letter  to  the  captives  in  Babylon,  Jer.  29. 

Israel's  restoration  from  Babylon,  Jer.  30-33. 

Prophecy  and  imprisonment,  Jer.  37,  38. 

Jerusalem  taken,  and  Jeremiah  released,  Jer.  39,  40. 

Murder  of  Gedaliah,  Jer.  41  . 

Enforced  flight  into  Egypt,  Jer.  42,  43. 

Idolatry  and  judgment  in  Egypt,  Jer.  44. 

Various  doom  prophecies,  Jer.  46-51. 

Historical  supplement  describing  the  capture  of  Jerusalem,  Jer.  52. 

LAMENTATIONS 

Desolation  and  misery  of  Jerusalem,  Lam.  i. 
The  Lord's  anger  against  His  people,  Lam.  2. 
The  nation's  complaint  and  comfort,  Lam.  3. 
The  past  and  present  of  Zion,  Lam.  4. 
A  prayer  for  Jehovah's  mercy,  Lam.  5. 


CHAPTER   XI 

STUDIES    IN    EZEKIEL    AND    DANIEL 

Peculiar  Circumstances.  —  The  circumstances  under 
which  the  prophecies  of  Ezekiel  were  written  are 
peculiar.  The  prophet  was  a  captive  in  a  strange  land ; 
for  he  had  been  deported  with  Jehoiachim  in  597  B.C.  He 
resided  at  Tel-abib,  on  the  river  Chebar,  in  the  midst  of 
a  considerable  community  of  Hebrew  exiles.  He  was 
married,  as  we  learn  incidentally,  and  resided  in  his  own 
house. 

Ezekiel  was  a  priest,  and  therefore  belonged  to  the 
aristocracy  of  his  people.  His  office  involved  an  extensive 
and  accurate  knowledge  of  Hebrew  history  and  Hebrew 
law.  He  shared  the  deepest  aspirations  of  the  Chosen 
People.  With  profound  and  anxious  sadness  he  must 
have  dwelt  on  the  former  splendor  of  his  nation,  its 
present  humiliation  and  suffering,  and  its  future  destiny. 

Prophetic  Call.  —  The  prophetic  call  of  Ezekiel  came 
in  a  sublime  vision.  As  narrated  in  the  first  chapter,  he 
beheld  the  form  of  Jehovah  enthroned  on  a  firmament 
upheld  by  flaming  cherubim.  When,  at  the  sight  of  the 
overpowering  spectacle,  he  fell  on  his  face,  he  heard  a 
divine  voice,  which  said  :  "  Son  of  man,  I  send  thee  to  the 
children  of  Israel,  to  a  rebellious  nation  that  hath  rebelled 
against  Me ;  they  and  their  fathers  have  transgressed 
against  Me,  even  unto  this  very  day.  For  they  are  impu- 
dent children,  and  stiff-hearted."  l 

The  date  of  this  vision  and  call  is  fixed  definitely  in  the 
i  £2.2:3,4. 


IQ4  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

fourth  month  of  the  fifth  year  of  Jehoiachim's  captivity ; 
hence  in  July,  592  B.C.  It  is  the  interval  between  the  first 
and  second  capture  of  Jerusalem.  Jeremiah  is  still  living 
and  preaching;  and  the  course  of  political  events  is 
uncertain  and  alarming  both  to  the  exiles  and  to  the 
residents  of  Judah.  From  this  time,  for  twenty-two  years, 
Ezekiel,  speaking  in  the  name  of  the  Lord,  continues  to 
warn,  instruct,  and  comfort  his  people. 

Threefold  Division.  —  The  book  of  Ezekiel  naturally  falls 
into  a  threefold  division.  For  a  time  the  most  significant 
event  for  the  Hebrew  people,  whether  at  home  or  in  cap- 
tivity, is  the  impending  destruction  of  Jerusalem.  The 
first  twenty-four  chapters  deal  with  this  event  in  varied 
and  impressive  forms. 

The  second  division  (chapters  25-32)  is  concerned  with 
other  nations  more  or  less  closely  associated  with  Israel. 
The  fall  of  Jerusalem  filled  the  Hebrews  for  a  time  with  a 
paralyzing  dejection.  The  fall  of  the  capital  and  the 
captivity  of  the  people  seemed  like  a  triumph  of  heathen- 
ism. But  in  the  presence  of  this  discouragement  the 
prophet  shows  them  that  the  triumph  is  only  temporary, 
and  that  the  proud  nations  about  them  are  destined  to  fall 
under  the  mighty  hand  of  Jehovah. 

In  the  third  division  (chapters  33-48)  the  future  resto- 
ration and  glory  of  Israel  are  predicted  with  impressive 
imagery  and  deep  spiritual  insight.  The  chastening  re- 
sults of  sorrow  are  recognized,  and  the  richer  spiritual  life 
of  the  Hebrew  people  after  the  restoration  is  foretold  in 
poetic  language.  The  closing  chapters  are  devoted  to  an 
imaginary  reconstruction  of  the  temple  and  to  directions 
for  its  services. 

It  is  thus  seen  that  the  book  of  Ezekiel  is  arranged  in 
a  systematic  manner.  Its  authorship  has  never  been 


STUDIES  IN  EZEKIEL  AND   DANIEL  195 

seriously  questioned ;  and  though  its  frequent  symbolism 
is  sometimes  obscure,  the  book  has  had  great  influence  in 
the  subsequent  development  of  the  religious  life  and 
worship  of  the  Jews. 

Sense  of  Responsibility.  —  Ezekiel  entered  upon  his  task 
with  a  high  sense  of  his  responsibility.  It  is  the  responsi- 
bility of  every  great  religious  leader.  Though  for  a  time 
his  dispiriting  message  was  unwelcome  to  his  fellow-exiles, 
he  did  not  allow  himself  to  sink  into  a  selfish  or  cowardly 
silence. 

It  was  a  week  after  his  call  that  he  was  made  to  under- 
stand the  responsibility  of  his  position.  "  The  word  of  the 
Lord,"  he  says,  "  came  unto  me,  saying,  Son  of  man,  I  have 
made  thee  a  watchman  unto  the  house  of  Israel:  therefore 
hear  the  word  at  my  mouth,  and  give  them  warning  from 
Me.  When  I  say  unto  the  wicked,  Thou  shalt  surely  die, 
and  thou  givest  him  not  warning,  nor  speakest  to  warn  the 
wicked  from  his  wicked  way,  to  save  his  life ;  the  same 
wicked  man  shall  die  in  his  iniquity ;  but  his  blood  will  I 
require  at  thine  hand.  Yet  if  thou  warn  the  wicked,  and 
he  turn  not  from  his  wickedness,  nor  from  his  wicked  way, 
he  shall  die  in  his  iniquity ;  but  thou  hast  delivered  thy 
soul." ! 

Judgment  for  Sin.  —  Ezekiel  clearly  foresees  the  im- 
pending doom  of  Jerusalem.  He  foretells  it  in  plain 
language  ;  he  portrays  it  in  symbolical  acts.  In  the  fourth 
chapter  he  lays  a  mimic  siege  to  Jerusalem ;  and  in  the 
fifth  chapter,  through  the  symbolism  of  his  shaven  hair, 
he  sets  forth  the  destruction  of  the  people. 

Like  the  other  Hebrew  prophets,  he  traces  the  disasters 
of  Judah  to  the  sins  of  the  people.  The  past  history  of 
Jerusalem  is  portrayed  in  very  dark  colors  :  — 

1  Ez.  3 :  16-19. 


196  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

"  I  have  set  her  in  the  midst  of  the  nations 
And  countries  are  round  about  her. 
And  she  hath  changed  my  judgments  into  wickedness  more  than  the 

nations, 

And  my  statutes  more  than  the  countries  that  are  round  about  her ; 
For  they  have  refused  my  judgments  and  my  statutes, 
They  have  not  walked  in  them." 

And  what  is  to  be  the  result  of  this  wickedness  ?  Here 
is  the  declaration  of  judgment :  — 

"  Therefore  thus  saith  the  Lord  God :  Behold,  I,  even  I,  am  against 

thee, 

And  will  execute  judgments  in  the  midst  of  thee 
In  the  sight  of  the  nations. 

And  I  will  do  in  thee  that  which  I  have  not  done, 
And  whereunto  I  will  not  do  any  more  the  like, 
Because  of  all  thine  abominations. 

Therefore  the  fathers  shall  eat  the  sons  in  the  midst  of  thee. 
And  the  sons  shall  eat  the  fathers  ;  and  I  will  execute  judgments  in 

thee, 
And  the  whole  remnant  of  thee  will  I  scatter  into  all  the  winds."1 

Sometimes,  as  in  chapter  six,  the  coming  destruction 
of  Israel  is  portrayed  in  language  of  poetic  eloquence. 

Heredity  and  Righteousness.  —  The  Jews  of  the  cap- 
tivity, it  appears,  were  inclined  to  attribute  their  misfor- 
tunes to  the  sins  of  their  fathers.  They  were  accustomed 
to  quote  the  proverb,  "  The  fathers  have  eaten  sour  grapes, 
and  the  children's  teeth  are  set  on  edge."  This  was  a  self- 
complacent  assertion  of  their  own  righteousness ;  for  by 
"the  children"  they  meant  themselves.  The  same 
proverb  had  been  used  in  connection  with  the  preaching 
of  Jeremiah.2 

This  proverb  contains  an  important  truth ;  namely,  that 
children  often  suffer  for  the  sins  of  their  parents.  This  is 

i  Ez.  5 :  5-10.  2  See  Jer.  31 : 29. 


STUDIES  IN  EZEKIEL  AND  DANIEL  197 

frequently  seen  in  the  transmitted  taints  of  heredity.  But 
this  law  is  not  inevitable  in  its  consequences,  and  cannot 
be  adduced  as  an  impeachment  of  the  justice  of  Jehovah. 
It  is  only  when  children  continue  in  the  iniquity  of  their 
parents  that  retribution  follows  in  all  its  force.  The  evil 
results  of  heredity  may  be  counteracted  by  righteousness, 
and  every  man,  in  spite  of  inherited  evil,  sustains  a  relation 
of  individual  responsibility  before  God. 

This  truth  Ezekiel  announces  very  clearly  and  forcibly 
to  his  self-complacent  countryman  :  — 

"  Ye  say,  why  ?  doth  not  the  son  bear  the  iniquity  of  the  father  ? 
When  the  son  hath  done  that  which  is  lawful  and  right, 
And  hath  kept  all  My  statutes,  and  hath  done  them,  he  shall  surely 

live. 

The  soul  that  sinneth,  it  shall  die. 
The  son  shall  not  bear  the  iniquity  of  the  father, 
Neither  shall  the  father  bear  the  iniquity  of  the  son : 
The  righteousness  of  the  righteous  shall  be  upon  him, 
And  the  wickedness  of  the  wicked  shall  be  upon  him. 
But  if  the  wicked  will  turn  from  all  his  sins  that  he  hath  committed, 
And  keep  all  My  statutes,  and  do  that  which  is  lawful  and  right, 
He  shall  surely  live,  he  shall  not  die. 
All  his  transgressions  that  he  hath  committed, 
They  shall  not  be  mentioned  unto  him  : 
In  his  righteousness  that  he  hath  done  he  shall  live. 
Have  I  any  pleasure  at  all  that  the  wicked  should  die  ?  "  x 

A  Picture  of  War.  —  Among  the  doom  prophecies  those 
against  Tyre  and  Egypt  are  elaborate  and  striking.  A 
wealth  of  detail  is  made  splendid  by  poetic  imagination. 
In  the  twenty-sixth  chapter  there  is  an  instructive  portrayal 
of  Oriental  warfare:  we  behold  its  varied  implements  and 
its  unsparing  cruelties.  Nebuchadnezzar  is  to  be  sent 
against  the  proud  city  of  Tyre,  — 

1  Ez.  18  :  19-23.     See  also  33 :  18-20. 


198  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

"With  horses,  and  with  chariots, 

And  with  horsemen,  and  companies,  and  much  people. 
And  he  shall  slay  with  the  sword  thy  daughters  in  the  field ; 
And  he  shall  make  a  fort  against  thee,  and  cast  a  mount  against  thee, 
And  lift  up  the  buckler  against  thee. 
And  he  shall  set  engines  of  war  against  thy  walls, 
And  with  his  axes  he  shall  break  down  thy  towers. 
By  reason  of  the  abundance  of  his  horses  their  dust  shall  cover  thee : 
Thy  walls  shall  shake  at  the  noise  of  the  horsemen, 
And  of  the  wheels,  and  of  the  chariots, 
When  he  shall  enter  into  thy  gates, 
As  men  enter  into  a  city  wherein  is  made  a  breach. 
With  the  hoofs  of  his  horses  shall  he  tread  down  all  thy  streets : 
He  shall  slay  thy  people  by  the  sword, 
And  thy  strong  garrisons  shall  go  down  to  the  ground. 
And  they  shall  make  a  spoil  of  thy  riches, 
And  make  a  prey  of  thy  merchandise  ; 

And  they  shall  break  down  thy  walls,  and  destroy  thy  pleasant  houses  : 
And  they  shall  lay  thy  stones  and  thy  timber  and  thy  dust 
In  the  midst  of  the  water." 


It  is  a  noteworthy  fact  that  the  destruction  of  Tyre,  as 
here  predicted,  did  not  take  place — a  fact  acknowledged 
by  Ezekiel  in  a  later  prophecy.1  It  was  indeed  besieged 
by  Nebuchadnezzar,  as  the  prophet  had  foreseen,  for  thir- 
teen years,  and  its  inland  trade  was  destroyed  ;  but  having 
no  navy,  the  Babylonian  monarch  was  not  able  to  cut  off 
its  supplies  by  sea.  Tyre  continued  to  be  a  great  com- 
mercial city  till  after  its  capture  by  Alexander  the  Great 
in  331  B.C. 

Restoration  from  Exile.  —  The  prophet's  confidence  in 
Jehovah  forbade  him  to  think  of  the  exile  as  a  permanent 
removal  from  the  sacred  soil  of  Judah.  Even  in  the  midst 
of  his  proclamation  of  judgment  and  destruction,  he  has  a 
word  of  comfort  for  the  people.  He  foresees  a  return  of 

l  Ez.  29 :  18. 


STUDIES  IN   EZEKIEL   AND   DANIEL  199 

the  exiles  to  the  city  of  David.     He  quotes  the  Lord  as  say- 
ing,— 

"  I  will  even  gather  you  from  the  people, 

And  assemble  you  out  of  the  countries,  where  ye  have  been  scattered. 
And  I  will  give  you  the  land  of  Israel."  l 

In  the  third  division  of  the  prophecy  the  restoration  is 
treated  at  considerable  length.  The  purifying  effect  of  the 
captivity  is  clearly  announced ;  and  when  the  people  of 
Israel  are  thus  healed  of  their  idolatry,  then  they  will  be 
restored  to  their  native  land,  which  will  flourish  again  like 
the  garden  of  the  Lord. 

"Thus  saith  the  Lord: 

In  the  day  that  I  shall  have  cleansed  you  of  all  your  iniquities, 
I  will  also  cause  you  to  dwell  in  the  cities, 
And  the  waste  shall  be  builded. 
And  the  desolate  land  shall  be  tilled, 
Whereas  it  lay  desolate  in  the  sight  of  all  that  passed  by. 
And  they  shall  say, 
This  land  that  was  desolate  and  ruined  is  become  like  the  garden  of 

Eden; 

And  the  waste  and  desolate  and  ruined  cities  are  become  fenced, 
And  are  inhabited.1'  2 

The  prophet  describes  the  regenerated  Israel  of  the  res- 
toration. The  religious  life  of  the  people  will  be  some- 
thing more  than  outward  formalism  ;  it  will  be  a  religion 
of  the  heart  and  life.  Though,  as  a  priest,  Ezekiel 
naturally  attached  importance  to  the  ritualistic  services  of 
the  temple,  he  discerned,  as  a  prophet,  the  essential  need 
of  spiritual  worship. 

"  A  new  heart  also  will  I  give  you, 
And  a  new  spirit  will  I  put  within  you ; 
And  I  will  take  away  the  stony  heart  out  of  your  flesh. 

lEz.  11:17.  2  Ez.  36 :  33-35, 


200  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO   BIBLE  STUDY 

And  I  will  put  My  Spirit  within  you, 

And  cause  you  to  walk  in  My  statutes, 

And  ye  shall  keep  My  judgments,  and  do  them. 

And  ye  shall  dwell  in  the  land  that  I  gave  to  your  fathers ; 

And  ye  shall  be  My  people,  and  I  will  be  your  God."  1 

A  Remarkable  Vision.  —  More  than  any  other  of  the 
greater  prophets,  Ezekiel  makes  use  of  symbol  and  parable. 
Perhaps  the  most  striking  of  all  the  symbols  he  uses  is 
the  vision  of  the  valley  of  dry  bones,2  by  which  he  seeks 
to  infuse  hope  and  courage  into  the  hearts  of  the  dejected 
exiles.  With  their  kingdom  destroyed  and  the  people  scat- 
tered among  the  nations,  it  was  difficult  for  them  to  believe 
the  glorious  things  predicted  of  their  return  to  Jerusalem. 

The  prophet  was  carried  in  spirit  to  a  valley  which  was 
filled  with  bleaching  bones,  the  relics  of  some  fierce  day  of 
slaughter.  It  seemed  impossible  that  these  ghastly  relics 
of  mortality  should  live  again.  Yet,  when  the  prophet 
spoke  in  obedience  to  the  divine  command,  there  was  a 
mighty  stir  of  life  throughout  the  plain,  and  at  length  the 
skeleton  host  stood  clothed  in  all  the  attributes  of  life. 

Then  came  the  interpretation  of  the  startling  vision :  "Son 
of  man,  these  bones  are  the  whole  house  of  Israel :  behold, 
they  say,  Our  bones  are  dried,  and  our  hope  is  lost :  we  are 
cut  off  for  our  parts.  Therefore  prophesy  and  say  unto 
them,  — 

"  Thus  saith  the  Lord  God  : 
Behold,  O  My  people,  I  will  open  your  graves, 
And  cause  you  to  come  out  of  your  graves, 
And  bring  you  into  the  land  of  Israel." 

Gog  and  Magog.  — The  prophet's  gaze,  sweeping  beyond 
the  approaching  restoration,  penetrates  far  into  the  future. 
Under  the  mighty  imagery  of  war  (chapters  38,  39)  he  fore- 

1  Ez.  36  :  28.    See  also  n  :  18-20.  2  Ez.  37. 


STUDIES  IN  EZEKIEL  AND   DANIEL  20 1 

tells  the  triumph  of  Jehovah  over  the  assembled  nations  of  the 
earth.  His  graphic  descriptions  seem  to  be  based  on  an 
earlier  Scythian  invasion,  the  terrors  of  which  still  lingered 
as  a  tradition  in  western  Asia. 

Under  the  leadership  of  Gog,  a  haughty  prince,  a  mighty 
host  is  represented  as  invading  the  peaceful  and  unprotected 
land  of  Israel.  In  their  greed  for  booty  they  come  on 
"like  a  storm,"  and  cover  the  land  "like  a  cloud."  But 
the  Lord's  people  are  not  to  be  destroyed.  In  wrath 
Jehovah  rises  against  the  enemy. 

"  And  I  will  call  for  a  sword  against  him 
Throughout  all  My  mountains,  saith  the  Lord  God ; 
Every  man's  sword  shall  be  against  his  brother. 
And  I  will  plead  against  him  with  pestilence  and  blood : 
And  I  will  rain  upon  him,  and  upon  his  bands,  . 

And  upon  the  many  people  that  are  with  him, 
An  overflowing  rain,  and  great  hailstones,  fire,  and  brimstone. 
Thus  will  I  magnify  Myself,  and  sanctify  Myself; 
And  I  will  be  known  in  the  eyes  of  many  nations, 
And  they  shall  know  that  I  am  the  Lord."  l 

Characteristics.  —  Some  of  the  leading  features  of  Eze- 
kiel's  genius  have  already  been  brought  out.  He  was 
not  a  great  public  preacher  like  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah  ;  his 
prophecies  were  delivered  chiefly  to  small  groups  of  exiles 
who  assembled  at  his  house  at  Tel-abib.  His  vigorous  im- 
agination made  extensive  use  of  symbol  and  parable  and 
vision  ;  yet  he  often  lacked  the  poetic  sensibility  that  im- 
parts warmth  and  beauty  to  discourse.  He  was  a  patient 
writer  rather  than  fiery  orator;  and  no  other  prophet 
shows  so  great  a  familiarity  with  the  earlier  Hebrew  writ- 
ings. He  borrows  not  only  from  various  books  of  the 
Pentateuch,  but  also  from  the  writings  of  Isaiah,  Hosea, 
and  Jeremiah. 


202  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO   BIBLE  STUDY 

He  was  not  to  be  a  part  of  the  restoration,  with  hopes  of 
which  he  had  comforted  his  fellow-captives.  He  was 
destined  to  end  his  days  in  a  strange  land.  He  must  have 
lived  much  in  memories  of  the  past.  In  the  words  of 
Geikie:  "  He  could  only  betake  himself  to  the  regions  of  fancy 
and  memory,  and  call  up  a  vision  of  the  temple,  and  its 
services  he  loved  so  well,  now  lost  to  him  forever.  Nor 
did  a  general  picture  before  his  imagination  content  him. 
With  a  passionate  devotion  to  exactness  in  ritual  that  marks 
the  character  of  his  mind,  he  almost  anticipates  Ezra  in 
the  importance  he  attaches  to  the  minutest  ecclesiastical 
details."  l 

Daniel.  —  The  book  of  Daniel,  when  viewed  in  a  proper 
light,  is  one  of  the  grandest  and  most  impressive  in  the 
Old  Testament.  In  its  largeness  of  view,  it  comprehends 
the  rise  and  fall  of  empires,  and  clearly  recognizes  the 
divine  agency  that  reaches  forth  from  the  invisible  world 
to  direct  the  destiny  of  nations.  When  Daniel,  through 
"a  night  vision,"  understands  Nebuchadnezzar's  dream  of 
the  colossal  image,  he  breaks  forth  in  a  psalm  of  praise  :  — 

u  Blessed  be  the  name  of  God  forever  and  ever : 
For  wisdom  and  might  are  His  : 
And  He  changeth  the  times  and  seasons ; 
He  removeth  kings,  and  setteth  up  kings."  2 

This  is  his  fundamental  belief  ;  and  on  that  foundation 
he  builds  up  his  great  message  of  encouragement  to  his 
people.  His  faith  is  simply  repeated  by  the  American 
poet  who  declares  that,  — 

"  Behind  the  dim  unknown 
Standeth  God  within  the  shadow,  keeping  watch  above  His  own."  8 

1  Geikie,  "  Hours  with  the  Bible,"  Vol.  V.,  p.  428.  2  Dan.  2 :  20,  21. 

8  Lowell,  "  The  Present  Crisis." 


STUDIES  IN  EZEKIEL  AND  DANIEL  203 

Authorship.  —  In  order  to  a  right  understanding  of  the 
book  of  Daniel,  it  is  important  to  know  when  and  by  whom 
it  was  written.  The  prevailing  view  of  modern  biblical 
scholarship  places  the  author  in  the  time  of  Antiochus 
Epiphanes  (175-164  B.C.).  The  prophet  was  a  devout  and 
faithful  Jew  of  Palestine,  who  brought  in  this  book  a 
mighty  message  of  encouragement  to  his  downtrodden  and 
suffering  people.  He  placed  his  message  in  the  mouth  of 
Daniel,  an  honored  name  in  Hebrew  tradition,1  and  ex- 
pressed in  the  form  of  visions  and  historic  incidents,  as  in 
parables,  the  weighty  spiritual  truths,  which  it  might  have 
been  dangerous,  under  the  dominion  of  a  pagan  tyrant,  to 
utter  in  an  open  manner. 

When  viewed  in  this  light,  the  book  of  Daniel  is  found  to 
possess  a  new  and  deeper  significance.  It  becomes  one  of 
the  most  powerful  prophetic  appeals  ever  addressed  to  a 
troubled  and  suffering  age.  "  It  is  written,"  to  use  the 
words  of  McFadyen,  "  at  white  heat  amid  the  fires  of  per- 
secution, and  it  is  inspired  by  a  passionate  faith  in  God  and 
in  the  triumph  of  His  kingdom  over  the  cruel  and  powerful 
kingdoms  of  the  world.  Its  object  was  to  sustain  the  tried 
and  tempted  faith  of  the  loyal  Jews  under  the  fierce  assault 
made  upon  it  by  Antiochus  Epiphanes.  Never  before  had 
there  been  so  awful  a  crisis  in  Jewish  history.  In  586  the 
temple  had  been  destroyed,  but  that  was  practically  only  an 
incident  in  or  a  consequence  of  the  destruction  of  the  city ; 
but  Antiochus  had  made  a  deliberate  attempt  to  extermi- 
nate the  Jewish  religion.  It  was  to  console  and  strengthen 
the  faithful  in  this  crisis  that  the  book  was  written."  2 

The  Older  View.  —  The  older  view,  which  made  Daniel 
the  author  as  well  as  the  hero,  and  thus  placed  the  date  of 

1  See  Ez.  14 : 14. 

2  McFadyen,  "  Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament,"  p.  329. 


204  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO   BIBLE  STUDY 

the  book  in  the  sixth  century  before  Christ,  is  attended 
with  many  and  serious  difficulties,  only  a  few  of  which  can 
be  here  mentioned.  This  view,  in  large  measure,  destroys 
the  value  of  the  book  as  a  prophetic  message  to  the 
author's  contemporaries.  It  is  written  in  the  language  of 
western  Syria,  —  a  fact  inconsistent  with  its  composition  in 
Babylon.  It  contains  a  large  number  of  Persian  words, 
which  indicate  a  period  subsequent  to  the  Babylonian 
monarchy.  It  contains  also  several  Greek  words  —  herald, 
harp,  psaltery,  symphony  —  which  point  to  a  time  following 
the  conquests  of  Alexander  the  Great. 

But  more  important  than  these  linguistic  considerations 
are  several  historical  inaccuracies  that  would  have  been  im- 
possible to  a  contemporary  author.  It  is  tolerably  certain- 
for  instance,  that  Nebuchadnezzar,  contrary  to  the  opening 
statement  of  Daniel,  did  not  capture  Jerusalem  "  in  the 
third  year  of  the  reign  of  Jehoiakim  "  (605  B.C.).  As  we 
have  already  learned  from  other  parts  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, the  Babylonian  conqueror  first  captured  Jerusalem 
and  deported  a  part  of  its  inhabitants  in  597  B.C.  in  the  reign 
of  Jehoiachim.  Again  Belshazzar  is  represented  as  the  son 
of  Nebuchadnezzar  and  last  king  of  Babylon.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  Nabonidus  was  the  last  king  of  Babylon,  and  his  son  Bel- 
sharusur,  or  Belshazzar,  was  in  no  way  related  to  Nebuchad- 
nezzar. Furthermore,  the  conqueror  of  Babylon  was  Cyrus, 
and  not  "  Darius  the  Median,"  as  stated  in  chapter  5  :  3I.1 

1 "  All  these  reasons  force  us  to  recognize  in  Daniel  the  work  of  a  pious  and  faith- 
ful Jew  of  the  time  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  who  wished  to  encourage  and 
strengthen  his  persecuted  and  suffering  people  through  the  promise  that  the  king- 
dom of  heaven  was  near  at  hand.  These  admonitions  and  prophecies  he  placed 
in  the  mouth  of  an  inspired  prophet  of  the  time  of  the  Babylonian  exile,  so  that  his 
work  is  apseudepigrapha;  but  this  course  was  an  absolute  necessity,  if  he  was  to 
be  heard  and  if  his  message  was  to  be  heeded,  since  his  age  was  thoroughly  con- 
vinced that  prophecy  had  ceased."  —  CORNILL,  "  Einleitung  in  das  Alte  Testa- 
ment," p.  215. 


STUDIES  IN  EZEKIEL  AND   DANIEL  205 

The  Hero.  —  Adopting  the  view,  then,  that  the  book  of 
Daniel  dates  from  the  time  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  (about 
165  B.C.),  we  turn  to  the  more  pleasing  task  of  discovering 
its  separate  messages ;  for  its  purpose  is  not  historical  but 
spiritual  and  practical.  The  career  of  its  princely  hero, 
as  narrated  in  the  first  chapter,  is  a  lesson  in  loyalty  to 
Jehovah. 

As  a  handsome  and  promising  youth,  Daniel  was  set 
apart,  with  three  of  his  companions,  to  be  educated  in  the 
language  and  learning  of  the  Chaldeans.  Though  willing 
to  be  trained  for  the  public  service  of  the  Babylonian  mon- 
archy, he  remained  faithful  to  the  religion  of  Jehovah, 
and  hence  resolved  "that  he  would  not  defile  himself  with 
the  portion  of  the  king's  meat,  nor  with  the  wine  which  he 
drank."  And  what  was  the  outcome  of  this  faithfulness  ? 
It  was  an  edifying  example  at  a  time  when  Antiochus 
was  employing  the  fulness  of  his  power  to  draw  or  drive 
the  Jews  into  apostasy.  When,  at  the  end  of  three  years, 
Daniel  was  brought  before  Nebuchadnezzar,  he  was  found 
"  ten  times  better  than  all  the  magicians  and  astrologers." 
Fidelity  to  the  religion  of  Judah  did  not  go  unrewarded. 

The  Colossal  Image.  —  The  book  of  Daniel  is  made  up 
chiefly  of  narratives  and  visions,  which  in  the  form  of  im- 
pressive types  or  symbols  are  fraught  with  weighty  lessons. 
These  lessons,  though  suited  to  all  ages  and  peoples,  were 
peculiarly  adapted  to  comfort  and  strengthen  the  Jews  un- 
der the  persecutions  of  Antiochus. 

In  the  second  chapter  we  have  a  dramatic  account  of 
Nebuchadnezzar's  dream  of  a  colossal  image.  Its  head 
was  of  gold,  the  breast  and  arms  of  silver,  the  body  of 
brass,  the  legs  of  iron,  the  feet  of  mixed  iron  and  clay. 
As  the  king  gazed  upon  the  Titanic  figure,  a  marvellous 
stone  moved  upon  it,  crushed  it  to  powder,  and  after- 


206  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

wards  "became  a  great  mountain,  and  filled  the  whole 
earth." 

This  vision,  which  might  have  well  troubled  the  mon- 
arch's mind,  the  prophet  interpreted  before  him.  The 
image  symbolized  four  great  monarchies — the  Babylonian, 
Median,  Persian,  and  Grecian  —  which  were  to  follow  one 
another  in  stately  succession  upon  the  great  stage  of  Asia. 
And  the  stone  "  cut  out  of  the  mountain  without  hands  "  ? 
"In  the  days  of  these  kings,"  explains  the  prophet,  "shall 
the  God  of  heaven  set  up  a  kingdom,  which  shall  never  be 
destroyed ;  and  the  kingdom  shall  not  be  left  to  other  peo- 
ple, but  it  shall  break  in  pieces  and  consume  all  these  king- 
doms, and  it  shall  stand  forever."  To  a  people,  whose 
religion  was  threatened  by  a  furious  monarch,  this  near 
approach  and  conquering  power  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven 
was  a  comforting  and  glorious  truth. 

The  Fiery  Furnace.  —  The  third  chapter  contains  an  ac- 
count of  the  marvellous  deliverance  of  three  faithful  He- 
brews—  Shadrach,  Meshach,  and  Abed-nego  —  from  a 
fiery  furnace.  Nebuchadnezzar  had  set  up  in  the  plain  of 
Dura  a  huge  image  of  gold.  At  its  dedication,  to  which 
all  the  officials  of  the  empire  had  been  summoned,  the  peo- 
ple were  commanded,  when  the  music  crashed  forth,  to  fall 
down  in  idolatrous  worship. 

When  the  three  faithful  Hebrews  refused  obedience  to 
the  king's  command,  they  were  hurled  into  a  furiously 
flaming  furnace.  But  they  were  not  consumed,  for  an 
angel  walked  at  their  side.  At  length  the  astonished  mon- 
arch called  them  forth  from  the  flames ;  and  the  lesson  of 
the  incident  —  the  message  which  the  author  meant  for  his 
persecuted  fellow-countrymen  —  is  found  in  Nebuchad- 
nezzar's own  words,  "  Blessed  be  the  God  of  Shadrach, 
Meshach,  and  Abed-nego,  who  hath  sent  His  angel,  and  de- 


STUDIES  IN  EZEKIEL  AND   DANIEL  207 

livered  His  servants  that  trusted  in  Him,  and  have  changed 
the  king's  word,  and  yielded  their  bodies,  that  they  might 
not  serve  nor  worship  any  god  except  their  own  God." 

Regal  Pride  Humbled.  —  The  fourth  chapter  teaches  a 
lesson  that  the  impious  Antiochus  would  have  done  well 
to  heed.  But  the  truth  embodied  in  Nebuchadnezzar's 
second  vision  is  of  universal  application.  It  is  thus  stated 
by  the  author  of  Proverbs  :  — 

"  A  man's  pride  shall  bring  him  low ; 
But  he  that  is  of  a  lowly  spirit  shall  obtain  honor."1 

In  his  dream  the  king  of  Babylon  beheld  a  mighty  tree 
in  the  midst  of  the  earth ;  its  top  reached  to  heaven,  and 
the  birds  found  shelter  in  its  widespreading  branches.  As 
the  royal  dreamer  was  wondering  at  the  majestic  tree,  he 
heard  a  heavenly  voice  commanding  that  'it  be  cut  down. 
When  the  magicians  and  astrologers  had  tried  in  vain,  the 
faithful  Daniel  made  known  the  meaning  of  the  vision. 
The  tree  symbolized  Nebuchadnezzar  himself  in  his  pride 
and  power;  but  he  was  to  be  brought  low  and  driven  for 
a  time  from  human  habitations  till  he  had  learned  the  great 
lesson  "  that  the  Most  High  ruleth  in  the  kingdom  of  men, 
and  giveth  it  to  whomsoever  He  will." 

The  fearful  visitation  of  divine  judgment  came  upon 
Nebuchadnezzar  at  the  supreme  moment  of  his  self-con- 
scious and  boastful  pride.  As  he  walked  upon  the  roof 
of  his  palace,  and  surveyed  the  grandeur  of  his  capital,  he 
exclaimed,  "  Is  not  this  great  Babylon,  that  I  have  built 
for  the  house  of  the  kingdom  by  the  might  of  my  power, 
and  for  the  honor  of  my  majesty  ? "  Scarcely  had  he 
ceased  speaking  when  his  reason  was  taken  from  him. 
For  seven  years  his  mania — known  as  lycanthropy — drove 

1  Prov.  29 :  23. 


208  A  N  INTRODUCTION"  TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

him  among  the  beasts  of  the  field.  At  length  his  reason 
returned  with  a  sense  of  his  humble  dependence  on  God. 
"And  at  the  end  of  the  days  I,  Nebuchadnezzar,  lifted  up 
mine  eyes  unto  heaven,  and  mine  understanding  returned 
unto  me,  and  I  blessed  the  Most  High,  and  I  praised  and 
honored  Him  that  liveth  forever,  whose  dominion  is  an  ever- 
lasting dominion,  and  His  kingdom  from  generation  to  gen- 
eration :  and  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth  are  reputed  as 
nothing ;  and  He  doeth  according  to  His  will  in  the  army  of 
heaven,  and  among  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth ;  and  none 
can  stay  His  hand,  or  say  unto  Him,  what  doest  Thou?" 

Belshazzar's  Feast. — The  story  of  Belshazzar's  feast 
brought  a  comforting  message  to  the  Jews  of  the  second 
century  before  Christ,  who  saw  another  impious  monarch 
desecrating  the  sanctity  of  their  temple  with  idolatrous 
worship.  It  assured  them,  in  a  narrative  of  tragic  power, 
that  sacrilege  is  attended  with  divine  judgment.  They 
were  thus  encouraged  to  look  forward  to  the  speedy  hu- 
miliation of  a  blasphemous  king,  who  had  forbidden  the 
worship  of  Jehovah  and  set  up  an  altar  to  Zeus  in  the  sa- 
cred temple. 

The  incidents  of  the  feast  are  known  to  all.  While  Bel- 
shazzar,  with  a  great  company  of  courtiers,  was  drinking 
wine  out  of  the  golden  vessels  taken  from  the  temple  at 
Jerusalem,  a  mysterious  hand  reached  forth  from  invisibil- 
ity, and  wrote  strange  words  upon  the  wall  of  the  palace. 
No  wonder  that  "  the  king's  countenance  was  changed,  and 
his  thoughts  troubled  him,  so  that  the  joints  of  his  loins 
were  loosed,  and  his  knees  smote  one  against  another." 

Once  more  Daniel  is  the  interpreter,  and  boldly  rebukes 
the  king  for  his  pride  and  sacrilege.  After  referring  to 
the  judgment  sent  upon  Nebuchadnezzar  for  his  pride,  the 
prophet  continues  :  "  And  thou  his  son,  O  Belshazzar,  hast 


STUDIES  IN  EZEKIEL  AND   DANIEL  209 

not  humbled  thine  heart,  though  thou  knewest  all  this ; 
but  hast  lifted  up  thyself  against  the  Lord  of  heaven;  and 
they  have  brought  the  vessels  of  His  house  before  thee, 
and  thou,  and  thy  lords,  thy  wives  and  thy  concubines,  have 
drunk  wine  in  them;  and  thou  hast  praised  the  gods  of 
silver,  and  gold,  of  brass,  iron,  wood,  and  stone,  which  see 
not,  nor  hear,  nor  know :  and  the  God  in  whose  hand  thy 
breath  is,  and  whose  ar.e  all  thy  ways,  hast  thou  not  glori- 
fied: then  was  the  part  of  the  hand  sent  from  Him;  and 
this  writing  was  written. 

"  And  this  is  the  writing  that  was  written,  MENE, 
MENE,  TEKEL,  UPHARSIN.  This  is  the  interpreta- 
tion of  the  thing  :  MENE  ;  God  hath  numbered  thy  king- 
dom, and  finished  it.  TEKEL  ;  Thou  art  weighed  in  the 
balances,  and  art  found  wanting.  PERES  ;  Thy  kingdom 
is  divided,  and  given  to  the  Medes  and  Persians."  And 
that  same  night,  as  the  narrative  concludes,  Belshazzar,  the 
king  of  the  Chaldeans,  was  slain. 

In  the  Lion's  Den.  —  In  the  sixth  chapter  we  have 
another  striking  narrative  that  admirably  teaches  an  im- 
pressive lesson.  While  Antiochus  was  seeking  to  establish 
the  Greek  religion  throughout  his  dominions,  there  were 
many  defections  from  the  Jewish  faith.  Apostasy  from 
Judaism  was  a  necessary  step  toward  political  or  religious 
preferment.  Under  these  circumstances  the  devout  author 
of  the  book  presents  Daniel's  splendid  example  of  fidelity. 

For  the  purpose  of  ensnaring  Daniel,  of  whose  pre- 
eminence they  had  become  jealous,  the  Persian  princes 
secured  a  decree  from  Darius  "  that  whosoever  shall  ask 
a  petition  of  any  god  or  man  for  thirty  days,  save  of  thee, 
O  king,  he  shall  be  cast  into  the  den  of  lions."  As  the 
evil-minded  princes  had  foreseen,  Daniel  disregarded  the 
decree ;  and,  "  his  windows  being  open  in  his  chamber 


210  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO   BIBLE  STUDY 

toward  Jerusalem,  he  kneeled  upon  his  knees  three  times 
a  day,  and  prayed,  and  gave  thanks  before  his  God,  as  he 
did  aforetime."  According  to  the  decree,  which  was  un- 
changeable, the  king,  with  great  reluctance,  ordered  Dan- 
iel to  be  cast  into  the  den  of  lions. 

As  is  well  known,  the  faithful  hero  was  saved,  for 
"  God  sent  His  angel,  and  shut  the  lions'  mouths."  The 
king  was  " exceeding  glad"  of  his  preservation;  and  he 
forthwith  published  a  decree  that  contains  the  impressive 
moral  of  the  story.  "  I  make  a  decree,"  he  wrote,  "  that 
in  every  dominion  of  my  kingdom  men  tremble  and  fear 
before  the  God  of  Daniel;  for  He  is  the  living  God,  and 
steadfast  forever,  and  His  kingdom  that  which  shall  not 
be  destroyed,  and  His  dominion  shall  be  even  unto  the 
end.  He  delivereth  and  rescueth,  and  He  worketh  signs 
and  wonders  in  heaven  and  in  earth,  who  hath  delivered 
Daniel  from  the  power  of  the  lions." 

Various  Visions.  —  The  first  seven  chapters  of  Daniel, 
as  we  have  seen,  are  narrative  in  form ;  the  rest  of  the 
book  is  occupied  with  the  prophet's  own  visions,  which 
deal  with  great  national  changes  and  the  ultimate 
triumph  of  the  kingdom  of  God.  The  vision  of  four 
beasts  in  chapter  7,  which  are  explained  to  signify  four 
kingdoms,  is  commonly  understood  to  be  parallel  with 
Nebuchadnezzar's  dream  of  the  colossal  image. 

In  chapter  8  a  ram  with  two  horns  is  furiously  at- 
tacked by  a  goat  "  with  a  notable  horn  between  his 
eyes."  The  angel  Gabriel  explains  to  the  prophet  that 
the  ram  symbolizes  the  Medo-Persian  empire,  and  the 
goat  the  Grecian  empire,  its  "  notable  horn  "  being  clearly 
Alexander  the  Great.  Afterwards  follow  the  four  king- 
doms into  which  the  empire  of  the  Macedonian  conqueror 
was  divided.  "  And  in  the  latter  time  of  their  kingdom, 


STUDIES   IN  EZEKIEL   AND   DANIEL  211 

when  the  transgressors  are  come  to  the  full,  a  king  of 
fierce  countenance,  and  understanding  dark  sentences, 
shall  stand  up.  And  his  power  shall  be  mighty,  but  not  by 
his  own  power ;  and  he  shall  destroy  wonderfully,  and 
shall  prosper  and  do  his  pleasure :  and  he  shall  destroy 
the  mighty  ones  and  the  holy  people.  And  through  his 
policy  he  shall  cause  craft  to  prosper  in  his  hand  ;  and  he 
shall  magnify  himself  in  his  heart,  and  in  their  security 
shall  destroy  many  ;  he  shall  also  stand  up  against  the 
prince  of  princes;  but  he  shall  be  broken  without  hand." 
This  impious  king,  as  is  generally  recognized,  can  be  no 
other  than  Antiochus  Epiphanes. 

The  times  and  events  of  chapter  9  have  given  rise  to 
different  interpretations.  The  last  two  chapters  deal  with 
four  kings  of  Persia,  with  Alexander  the  Great,  and  the 
fourfold  division  of  his  kingdom.  In  the  eleventh  chapter, 
from  the  twenty-first  to  the  forty-fifth  verse,  the  career  of 
Antiochus  Epiphanes  is  described  with  remarkable  fulness 
and  particularity.  Though  he  is  not  named,  there  can  be 
no  mistaking  his  person.  "  He  shall  have  regard  unto 
them  that  forsake  the  holy  covenant.  And  arms  shall 
stand  on  his  part,  and  they  shall  profane  the  sanctuary, 
even  the  fortress,  and  shall  take  away  the  continual  burnt 
offering,  and  they  shall  set  up  the  abomination  that 
maketh  desolate.  And  such  as  do  wickedly  against  the 
covenant  shall  he  pervert  by  flatteries  :  but  the  people  that 
know  their  God  shall  be  strong,  and  do  exploits." 

General  Character.  —  The  book  of  Daniel,  in  some  re- 
spects, stands  apart  from  the  other  prophetical  writings. 
The  author  does  not  speak  in  the  name  of  Jehovah ;  we 
look  in  vain  for  his  "  thus  saith  the  Lord."  Yet,  in  the 
highest  sense  he  has  the  inspired  insight  of  the  prophet 
and  delivers  the  weighty  message  of  the  prophet.  He 


212  AN   INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

deals  with  great  themes.  From  a  lofty  summit  he  sur- 
veys the  movement  of  great  empires,  as  they  fulfil  their 
age-long  parts  on  the  stage  of  history.  "  The  prophets," 
as  Driver  says,  "  do  not  merely  foretell  history ;  they  also 
interpret  it.  And  the  book  of  Daniel  does  this  on  a  more 
comprehensive  scale  than  any  other  prophetical  book.  It 
outlines  a  religious  philosophy  of  history.  It  deals,  not 
with  a  single  empire,  but  with  a  succession  of  empires, 
showing  how  all  form  parts  of  a  whole,  ordained  for  pre- 
scribed terms  by  God,  and  issuing  in  results  designed  by 
Him."  i 

RESEARCH  WORK 

EZEKIEL 

Vision  and  call  of  the  prophet,  Ez.  1-3. 

Mimic  siege  and  other  symbols,  Ez.  4,  5. 

Discourse  against  the  land  of  Judah,  Ez.  6,  7. 

Guilt  and  judgment  of  Jerusalem,  Ez.  8-n. 

An  emblem  prophecy,  Ez.  12  :  1-16. 

A  condemnation  of  false  prophets,  Ez.  13. 

Parable  of  the  vine,  Ez.  15. 

Parable  of  an  adulterous  woman,  Ez.  16. 

Parable  of  the  eagle  and  the  cedar,  Ez.  17. 

Heredity  and  responsibility,  Ez.  18. 

Emblem  prophecy  of  the  sword,  Ez.  21. 

The  guilt  of  Jerusalem,  Ez.  22. 

Parable  of  Aholah  and  Aholibah,  Ez.  23. 

Parable  of  the  caldron,  Ez.  24 :  1-14. 

Death  of  the  prophet's  wife,  Ez.  24:  15-27. 

The  doom  of  Tyre,  Ez.  26-28. 

A  group  of  prophecies  against  Egypt,  Ez.  26-28. 

The  selfish  shepherds  of  Israel,  Ez.  34. 

Vision  of  the  valley  of  dry  bones,  Ez.  37. 

Prophecy  against  Gog  of  Magog,  Ez.  38-39. 

Vision  of  Jerusalem  restored,  Ez.  40-48. 

1  Driver,  "  Literature  of  the  Old  Testament,"  p.  512. 


STUDIES  IN  EZEKIEL  AND   DANIEL  213 

DANIEL 

Faithfulness  blessed  and  rewarded,  Dan.  I. 
Dream  of  a  colossal  image,  Dan.  2. 
Deliverance  from  a  fiery  furnace,  Dan.  3. 
Dream  of  a  mighty  tree,  Dan.  4. 
Belshazzar's  feast,  Dan.  5. 
The  prophet  in  the  lions1  den,  Dan.  6. 
Vision  of  the  four  beasts,  Dan.  7. 
Vision  of  the  ram  and  goat,  Dan.  8. 
The  time  of  the  restoration,  Dan.  9. 
The  time  of  the  end,  Dan.  10-12. 


CHAPTER   XII 

STUDIES    IN   THE    EARLIER    MINOR    PROPHETS 

Minor  Prophets. — The  minor  prophets — Hosea,  Joel, 
Amos,  Obadiah,  Jonah,  Micah,  Nahum,  Habakkuk,  Zeph- 
aniah,  Haggai,  Zechariah,  and  Malachi  —  are  twelve  in 
number.  They  are  called  minor  prophets  not  because 
their  message  is  less  weighty  than  that  of  the  major 
prophets,  but  because  it  is  briefer.  The  combined  writ- 
ings of  the  minor  prophets  make  a  smaller  volume  than 
the  book  of  Isaiah. 

It  is  unfortunate  that  the  arrangement  of  the  minor 
prophets  in  our  Bibles  does  not  follow  a  chronological 
order.  Amos,  whose  career  dates  from  the  middle  of  the 
eighth  century  before  our  era,  is  undoubtedly  the  oldest 
of  all  the  prophetical  writers.  He  antedates  Isaiah  by 
several  years,  yet  he  is  placed  third  among  the  minor 
prophets.  Joel,  though  one  of  the  latest  of  the  minor 
prophets,  is  placed  second ;  and  Hosea,  though  prophesy- 
ing after  Amos,  opens  the  list.  There  are,  as  we  shall 
discover  later,  still  other  departures  from  a  chronological 
arrangement. 

Relation  to  the  New  Testament.  —  The  minor  prophets, 
with  their  varied  messages,  are  frequently  quoted  in  the 
New  Testament.  In  some  cases  there  is  no  direct  pre- 
diction ;  the  New  Testament  writers  merely  adopt  the 
earlier  statements  as  apt  or  interesting  illustrations.1  Our 

1 "  It  is  admitted  that  the  sense  put  by  the  New  Testament  writers  on  much  of 
the  Old  Testament  which  they  quote  is  not  the  true  historical  sense,  i.e.  not  the 
sense  which  the  original  writers,  prophets,  or  wise  men  had  in  their  mind." 
DAVIDSON,  "  Old  Testament  Theology,"  p.  22. 

214 


STUDIES  IN   THE  EARLIER  MINOR  PROPHETS      215 

Saviour  sometimes  used  the  spiritual  truth  announced  by 
the  prophets,  and  by  an  apt  quotation  closed  the  mouths 
of  His  antagonists.  In  other  cases  there  is  a  claim  of  the 
fulfilment  of  earlier  predictions. 

A  few  examples  will  make  all  this  plain.  In  Hosea 
(n  :  i)  Jehovah,  in  recounting  the  early  history  of  the 
Hebrew  people,  is  represented  as  saying,  "  When  Israel 
was  a  child,  then  I  loved  him,  and  called  my  son  out  of 
Egypt."  It  is  not  a  prediction  of  a  ftiture  event,  but  a 
statement  of  a  past  event.  But  the  evangelist  seizes 
upon  this  statement  of  the  prophet  as  furnishing  an  illus- 
tration or  parallel  of  the  flight  of  Joseph  into  Egypt;  and 
accordingly  he  writes  :  "  And  he  arose  and  took  the  young 
child  and  his  mother  by  night,  and  departed  into  Egypt ; 
and  was  there  until  the  death  of  Herod  ;  that  it  might 
be  fulfilled  which  was  spoken  by  the  Lord  through  the 
prophet,  saying,  Out  of  Egypt  did  I  call  My  son."1 

In  the  sixth  chapter  of  Hosea,  the  prophet  rebukes 
Israel  for  formalism  and  iniquity.  With  true  spiritual  in- 
sight he  declares  in  the  name  of  Jehovah,  "  I  desire  mercy, 
and  not  sacrifice ;  and  the  knowledge  of  God  more  than 
burnt  offerings."  This  statement  of  truth  Jesus  employs 
with  irresistible  effect  against  the  carping  Pharisees,  who  in 
their  excessive  devotion  to  outward  observances  complained 
of  the  violation  of  the  Sabbath  by  the  disciples.  "  If  ye 
had  known,"  He  answered,  "  what  this  meaneth,  I  desire 
mercy,  and  not  sacrifice,  ye  would  not  have  condemned 
the  guiltless."2 

In  foretelling  the  future  glory  of  Israel,  the  prophet 
Micah  had  said,  — 

"  But  thou,  Beth-lehem  Ephratah, 
Though  thou  be  little  among  the  thousands  of  Judah, 
Yet  out  of  thee  shall  he  come  forth  unto  me  that  is  to  be  ruler  in  Israel." 
l  Matt.  2 :  14,  15.  2  Matt.  12: 7. 


2l6  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

This  prediction  was  understood  among  the  Jews  to  refer 
to  the  coming  Messiah.  Accordingly,  when  Herod  in- 
quired of  the  priests  and  scribes  "  where  Christ  should  be 
born,"  they  answered  without  hesitation :  "  In  Bethlehem 
of  Judaea :  for  thus  it  is  written  by  the  prophet,  And  thou 
Bethlehem,  in  the  land  of  Judah,  art  not  the  least  among 
the  princes  of  Judah  ;  for  out  of  thee  shall  come  a  Gov- 
ernor, that  shall  rule  My  people  Israel."  l 

Hosea.  —  Hosea,  of  whom  little  is  known  further  than 
his  father's  name,  was  a  prophet  of  Israel  during  the 
period  immediately  preceding  the  fall  of  the  northern 
kingdom.  He  was  married  to  a  faithless  wife ;  and  his 
love  and  kindness  to  her  he  employed  symbolically  to  set 
forth  the  gracious  attitude  of  Jehovah  to  Israel.  From 
the  list  of  kings  in  the  opening  verse,  we  are  able  to  fix 
the  date  of  his  prophecies,  which  cover  the  long  period  of 
about  half  a  century. 

As  may  be  seen  from  the  narratives  in  2  Kings,  par- 
ticularly the  fifteenth  chapter,  the  prophet  lived  in  a  period 
of  anarchy.  Murder  repeatedly  opened  the  way  to  the 
throne.  Shallum,  who  had  obtained  the  kingdom  by  con- 
spiracy and  assassination,  reigned  but  a  month.  He  was 
slain  by  Menahem,  who  maintained  himself  for  ten  years 
through  the  support  of  Tiglathpilezer  of  Assyria.  This 
support  was  procured  through  the  payment  of  a  burden- 
some tribute.2  Under  Hoshea,  who  ascended  the  throne 

1  Matt.  2 :  6. 

2  KINGS  OF  ISRAEL  CONTEMPORARY  WITH  HOSEA 

B.C.  786.   Jeroboam  II. 
746.  Zechariah. 
745.  Shallum. 
745.    Menahem. 
737.   Pekahiah. 
735.    Pekah. 
733.    Hoshea. 
722,   Fall  of  Samaria. 


STUDIES   IN    THE  EARLIER   MINOR   PROPHETS      217 

about  the  time  Hosea's  prophecies  ceased,  the    northern 
kingdom  came  to  its  end  (722  B.C.). 

Religious  Conditions.  —  As  might  be  expected,  this 
anarchic  period  was  characterized  by  great  moral  and 
religious  decadence.  In  the  seventeenth  chapter  of  2 
Kings,  we  have  a  full  statement  of  the  transgressions  and 
idolatries  of  the  people.  Hosea's  arraignment  of  Israel  is 
a  strong,  comprehensive  indictment:  — 

"  Hear  the  word  of  the  Lord,  ye  children  of  Israel : 
For  the  Lord  hath  a  controversy  with  the  inhabitants  of  the  land, 
Because  there  is  no  truth,  nor  mercy,  nor  knowledge  of  God  in  the 

land. 

By  swearing,  and  lying, 

And  killing,  and  stealing,  and  committing  adultery, 
They  break  out,  and  blood  toucheth  blood." 

The  mission  of  Hosea  was  to  call  his  people  to  repent- 
ance and  reformation.  He  urged  upon  them  the  good- 
ness of  Jehovah ;  he  reminded  them  of  the  gracious 
providences  of  their  previous  history ;  but,  at  the  same 
time,  he  announced  the  woes  that  would  certainly  follow 
'impenitent  sin :  — 

"  My  people  are  destroyed  for  lack  of  knowledge : 

Because  thou  hast  rejected  knowledge, 
'  I  will  also  reject  thee,  that  thou  shalt  be  no  priest  to  Me : 

Seeing  thou  hast  forgotten  the  law  of  thy  God, 

I  will  also  forget  thy  children. 

As  they  were  increased,  so  they  sinned  against  Me : 

Therefore  will  I  change  their  glory  into  shame." 

Two  Parts.  —  The  book  of  Hosea  naturally  falls  into  two 
parts.  The  first  part  (chapters  1—3)  belongs  to  the  reign  of 
Jeroboam  ;  the  second  part  (chapters  4-14)  contains  a  sum- 
mary of  Hosea's  prophetic  discourses  under  the  reigns  of 
subsequent  kings.  The  first  part  is  devoted  to  a  symboli- 


2l8  A N   INTRODUCTION   TO   BIBLE  STUDY 

cal  act,  or,  as  some  think,  a  symbolical  vision,  by  which 
Israel's  unfaithfulness  is  represented.  The  unfaithful 
spouse  of  the  prophet  is  emblematic  of  Israel.  But  the 
Lord  will  not  cast  off  His  faithless  people  forever,  but 
cleanse  them  from  their  iniquity  :  — 

"  Therefore,  behold,  I  will  allure  her, 

And  bring  her  into  the  wilderness,  and  speak  comfortably  unto  her, 
And  I  will  give  her  her  vineyards  from  thence, 
And  the  valley  of  Achor  for  a  door  of  hope  : 
And  she  shall  sing  then,  as  in  the  days  of  her  youth, 
And  as  in  the  day  when  she  came  up  out  of  the  land  of  Egypt."1 

In  the  second  part  there  are  various  statements  of  Is- 
rael's guilt  and  coming  punishment.  In  the  eleventh 
chapter  the  prophet,  speaking  in  Jehovah's  name,  ten- 
derly sets  forth  the  divine  love,  but  at  the  same  time 
clearly  announces  the  coming  disasters  at  the  hand  of 
Assyria :  — 

"  When  Israel  was  a  child,  then  I  loved  him, 
And  called  My  son  out  of  Egypt. 
As  they  called  them,  so  they  went  from  them : 
They  sacrificed  unto  Baalim,  and  burnt  incense  to  graven  images. 
I  taught  Ephraim  also  to  go,  taking  them  by  their  arms ; 
But  they  knew  not  that  I  healed  them. 


"  He  shall  not  return  into  the  land  of  Egypt, 

But  the  Assyrian  shall  be  his  king,  because  they  refused  to  return. 
And  the  sword  shall  abide  on  his  cities, 
And  shall  consume  his  branches,  and  devour  them.1' 

Message  of  Hope.  —  Like  the  other  prophets  whom  we 
have  studied,  Hosea  has  a  message  of  hope  for  his  people. 
The  captivity  is  to  bring  a  blessing ;  for  it  will  teach  them 

1  Hos.  2: 14,  15. 


STUDIES  IN    THE  EARLIER   MINOR   PROPHETS      219 

not  to  worship  "  the  work  of  their  hands."     In  the  last 
chapter  Jehovah  declares  :  — 

"  I  will  heal  their  backsliding,  I  will  love  them  freely  : 
For  Mine  anger  is  turned  away  from  him. 
I  will  be  as  the  dew  unto  Israel : 

He  shall  grow  as  the  lily,  and  cast  forth  his  roots  as  Lebanon. 
His  branches  shall  spread, 

And  his  beauty  shall  be  as  the  olive  tree,  and  his  smell  as  Lebanon. 
They  that  dwell  under  his  shadow  shall  return ; 
They  shall  revive  as  the  corn,  and  grow  as  the  vine : 
The  scent  thereof  shall  be  as  the  wine  of  Lebanon." 

But  alas  !  for  the  prophet's  hopes.  Though  his  faith  in 
God  was  beautiful  and  true,  his  confidence  in  Israel  was 
misplaced.  The  Ten  Tribes,  who  were  carried  into  As- 
syria, abandoned  their  religion,  and  became  absorbed 
among  the  peoples  around  them.  Like  raindrops  swal- 
lowed up  in  the  ocean,  they  have  disappeared  from  the 
field  of  history  forever. 

Joel.  —  The  brief  book  of  Joel  gives  no  direct  indication 
of  the  time  when  it  was  written.  Accordingly  a  diversity 
of  opinion  has  arisen,  and  we  find  the  different  dates  as- 
signed to  the  book  sometimes  disagreeing  by  nearly  five 
hundred  years.  One  thing  is  certain,  —  the  date  is  either 
very  early  or  quite  late ;  and  for  the  solution  of  the  prob- 
lem we  are  wholly  dependent  upon  internal  evidence. 

Though  the  reasoning  is  not  absolutely  conclusive,  it 
will  be  found  interesting,  as  an  example  of  historical  criti- 
cism, to  consider  some  of  the  arguments  in  favor  of  a  late 
or  post-exilic  date.  In  the  third  chapter  of  Joel,  second 
verse,  Jehovah  declares  his  purpose  to  judge  the  nations 
"  for  My  people  and  for  My  heritage  Israel,  whom  they 
have  scattered  among  the  nations  and  parted  My  land." 
This  seems  to  be  a  clear  reference  to  the  captivity  .  in 


220  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

586  B.C.  The  prophet  appears  to  have  had  in  mind  the 
capture  of  Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadnezzar  when  he  wrote 
again,  in  the  seventeenth  verse,  "there  shall  no  strangers 
pass  through  her  any  more." 

Furthermore,  there  is  no  reference  in  the  book  to  the 
Ten  Tribes,  which  seem  to  have  disappeared  entirely  from 
the  prophet's  range  of  knowledge.  He  speaks  only  of 
Judah  and  Jerusalem ;  and  when  he  uses  the  designation 
Israel,  he  gives  it  a  restricted  meaning.  The  Tyrians, 
Zidonians,  and  Philistines  are  charged  with  selling  "  the 
children  of  Judah  and  the  children  of  Jerusalem  unto  the 
sons  of  the  Grecians."  These  facts  are  most  readily  ex- 
plained on  the  theory  of  a  post-exilic  date. 

Again,  there  is  an  absence  of  the  prophetic  denuncia- 
tion characteristic  of  the  early  prophets.  Joel  makes  no 
reference  to  idolatry;  the  priests  are  held  in  honor;  and 
the  services  of  the  temple  are  conducted  regularly.  No 
mention  is  made  of  king  or  princes ;  on  the  contrary,  the 
elders  are  referred  to  as  prominent  in  the  public  assembly. 
All  these  conditions  are  apparently  suited  only  to  the 
period  after  the  restoration  under  Ezra  and  Nehemiah. 
We  are  reasonably  justified,  therefore,  in  fixing  the  date 
of  Joel  at  approximately  410  B.C. 

Plague  of  Locusts. — The  occasion  of  Joel's  prophecy 
was  a  plague  of  locusts.  The  visitation  was  exceedingly 
destructive.  Vineyards  and  harvest  fields  were  left  deso- 
late ;  and  the  ensuing  destitution  prevented  the  usual 
meat  and  drink  offerings  in  the  temple.  Here  is  a 
part  of  the  prophet's  description  of  the  work  of 
devastation :  — 

"  A  nation  is  come  up  upon  My  land,  strong  and  without  number, 
Whose  teeth  are  the  teeth  of  a  lion,  and  he  hath  the  cheek  teeth  of 
a  great  lion. 


STUDIES  IN   THE  EARLIER  MINOR  PROPHETS      221 

He  hath  laid  My  vine  waste,  and  barked  My  fig  tree ; 

He  hath  made  it  clean  bare,  and  cast  it  away ; 

The  branches  thereof  are  made  white. 

Lament  like  a  virgin  girded  with  sackcloth  for  the  husband  of  her 

youth. 

The  meat  offering  and  the  drink  offering 
Is  cut  off  from  the  house  of  the  Lord  ; 
The  priests,  the  Lord's  ministers,  mourn. 
The  field  is  wasted,  the  land  mourneth ; 
For  the  corn  is  wasted  ;  the  new  wine  is  dried  up, 
The  oil  languisheth."  l 

Day  of  the  Lord.  —  But  the  prophet  does  not  stop  at  the 
sore  visitation  of  locusts.  The  destruction  about  him  sug- 
gests "the  day  of  the  Lord,"  when  the  land  will  be  threat- 
ened with  a  still  more  terrible  enemy.  The  descriptions 
in  chapter  2  sometimes  touch  the  sublime :  — 

"  Let  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth  tremble  : 
For  the  day  of  the  Lord  cometh,  for  it  is  nigh  at  hand ; 
A  day  of  darkness  and  gloominess, 
A  day  of  clouds  and  thick  darkness, 

As  a  morning  spread  upon  the  mountains  ;  a  great  people  and  a  strong  ; 
There  hath  not  been  ever  the  like,  neither  shall  be  any  more  after  it, 
Even  to  the  years  of  many  generations." 

Deliverance.  —  In  view  of  the  coming  danger,  the 
prophet  exhorts  the  people  to  fasting  and  prayer.  The 
exhortation  contains  a  pleasing  conception  of  the  divine 
character :  — 

"  Therefore  also  now,  saith  the  Lord, 
Turn  ye  even  to  Me  with  all  your  heart, 
And  with  fasting,  and  with  weeping,  and  with  mourning ; 
And  rend  your  heart,  and  not  your  garments, 

And  turn  unto  the  Lord  your  God  ;  for  He  is  gracious  and  merciful, 
Slow  to  anger,  and  of  great  kindness,  and  repenteth  Him  of  the  evil."  2 

1  Joel  i :  6-10.  2  Joel  2 : 12,  13. 


222  AN  INTRODUCTION    TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

The  people  were  obedient  to  the  exhortation  to  repent- 
ance ;  and  beginning  with  the  eighteenth  verse  of  the 
second  chapter,  we  have  a  statement  of  the  blessings  that 
were  to  follow.  "  Then  was  the  Lord  jealous  for  His  land 
and  had  pity  on  His  people."  The  threatening  invasion 
was  to  be  driven  away,  and  the  land  was  to  rejoice  in 
returning  abundance.  This  bounteous  outward  prosperity 
was  to  be  attended  also  with  spiritual  blessings  :  — 

"  And  it  shall  come  to  pass  afterward, 
That  I  will  pour  out  My  Spirit  upon  all  flesh ; 
And  your  sons  and  your  daughters  shall  prophesy, 
Your  old  men  shall  dream  dreams,  your  young  men  shall  see  visions  : 
And  also  upon  the  servants  and  upon  the  handmaids 
In  those  days  will  I  pour  out  My  Spirit. 
And  I  will  show  wonders  in  the  heavens  and  in  the  earth, 
Blood,  fire,  and  pillars  of  smoke. 

The  sun  shall  be  turned  into  darkness,  and  the  moon  into  blood, 
Before  the  great  and  terrible  day  of  the  Lord  come. 
And  it  shall  come  to  pass, 

That  whosoever  shall  call  on  the  name  of  the  Lord  shall  be  deliv- 
ered." J 

At  length  the  Gentile  nations  were  to  be  destroyed  "  in 
the  valley  of  decision."  "  But  Judah  shall  abide  forever, 
and  Jerusalem  from  generation  to  generation." 

Characteristics.  —  As  will  have  been  observed,  the  style 
of  Joel  is  elevated  and  sustained.  His  prophecy  is  in 
poetry,  in  which  the  parallelisms  are  well  observed.  His 
descriptions  are  exceedingly  graphic ;  and  his  imagination 
has  a  large  movement.  More  than  one  passage  reaches 
the  level  of  sublimity. 

It  can  hardly  be  said  that  Joel  has  the  breadth  of  view 
belonging  to  Isaiah.  With  him  the  contrast  between  Ju- 
dah and  the  Gentile  nations  is  sharply  drawn.  Judah  is 

1  This  notable  passage  is  quoted  in  full  in  Acts  2 :  17-21. 


STUDIES  IN   THE  EARLIER   MINOR  PROPHETS      223 

to  be  saved ;  the  other  nations  are  to  be  destroyed.  This 
narrow  view,  which  mistook  the  world  mission  of  the 
Chosen  People,  was  a  weakness  of  post-exilic  Judaism. 
We  meet  with  it  in  the  gospels,  and  it  was  a  disturbing 
factor  in  the  early  church. 

Amos. — Though  placed  after  the  major  prophets  and 
third  among  the  minor  prophets,  Amos  is  the  earliest  of 
them  all.  As  we  learn  from  the  opening  statement  of  the 
book,  he  prophesied  "in  the  days  of  Jeroboam,  the  son  of 
Joash,  King  of  Israel."  He  preceded  Hosea,  who  also 
began  his  prophecies  under  Jeroboam,  by  several  years. 
The  date  of  his  prophetic  labors  may  be  safely  placed  in 
the  neighborhood  of  750  B.C. 

As  the  earliest  prophetic  book  of  the  Old  Testament, 
Amos  possesses  a  peculiar  interest.  Though  called  from 
the  humble  occupation  of  a  shepherd,  he  became  a  model 
for  a  long  line  of  inspired  teachers,  in  whose  writings 
we  find  the  same  ardent  condemnation  of  wickedness, 
the  same  denunciations  of  divine  judgment,  and  the  same 
promises  of  ultimate  redemption.1  Furthermore,  the  book 
of  Amos  has  great  historic  value.  By  means  of  its  graphic 
and  definite  touches  of  description,  we  are  able  to  re- 
produce a  tolerably  complete  picture  of  the  social  and 
moral  conditions  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel  in  the  eighth 
century  before  Christ. 

The  Prophet's  Call.  — In  2  Kings  (14:  23-29)  we  have 
a  brief  account  of  the  reign  of  Jeroboam  II.,  under  whom 
the  northern  kingdom  reached  a  high  degree  of  political 
power.  His  armies  recovered  the  territory  that  had  been 
lost  under  previous  rulers.  But  "  he  did  that  which  was 

1  "  Amos  is  one  of  the  most  marvellous  and  incomprehensible  figures  in  the 
history  of  the  human  mind,  the  pioneer  of  a  process  of  evolution  from  which  a 
new  eooch  of  humanity  dates."  —  CORNILL,  "  The  Prophets  of  Israel,"  p.  n. 


224  AN  INTRODUCTION    TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

evil  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord ; "  and  accordingly  we  see 
idolatry  flourishing  at  Bethel,  and  pride,  luxury,  injustice, 
and  oppression  prevailing  among  the  people. 

It  was  these  fatal  conditions  that  led  to  the  call  of 
Amos,  as  he  tended  his  flocks  and  dressed  sycamore  trees 
at  Tekoa,  a  village  of  Judah  some  twelve  miles  south  of 
Jerusalem.  Though  he  was  no  prophet,  as  he  tells  us,1 
nor  the  son  of  a  prophet,  the  divine  call  came  to  the 
gifted  peasant,  as  he  was  faithfully  pursuing  his  humble 
duties.  In  his  own  words,  "The  Lord  took  me  from 
following  the  flock ;  and  the  Lord  said  unto  me,  Go, 
prophesy  unto  My  people  Israel."  This  unexpected  and 
extraordinary  task  the  prophet  performed,  as  we  shall  see, 
with  rare  skill  and  fidelity. 

^Admirable  Tact.  —  It  is  no  light  galling  to  rebuke  a 
nation  for  sin  in  the  name  of  the  Lord.  When  Amos 
appeared  at  Bethel,  the  centre  of  idolatrous  worship  in  the 
northern  kingdom,  he  was  hardly  a  welcome  guest.  He 
did  not  at  once  reveal  the  burden  of  his  message ;  but 
with  admirable  tact  portrayed  the  judgments  that  were  to 
fall  upon  the  surrounding  nations,  —  Syria,  Philistia,  Tyre, 
Edom,  and  others.  Even  Judah  did  not  escape. 

It  was  not  till  the  favor  of  the  people  had  thus  been 
conciliated  that  the  prophet  ventured  to  announce  his 
message  to  Israel.  His  words  have  a  manly  directness 
and  force ;  Israel  will  no  more  escape  the  consequences  of 
iniquity  than  the  neighboring  nations  :  — 

"  Thus  saith  the  Lord  :  for  three  transgressions  of  Israel,  and  for  four, 
I  will  not  turn  away  the  punishment  thereof; 
Because  they  sold  the  righteous  for  silver,  and  the  poor  for  a  pair  of 

shoes ; 
That  pant  after  the  dust  of  the  earth  on  the  head  of  the  poor, 

1  Amos  7 : 14. 


STUDIES  IN   THE  EARLIER   MINOR  PROPHETS      22$ 

And  turn  aside  the  way  of  the  meek ; 

And  they  lay  themselves  down  upon  clothes  laid  to  pledge 
By  every  altar,  and  they  drink  the  wine  of  the  condemned 
In  the  house  of  their  god."  * 

These  sins  of  bribery,  oppression,  and  drunken  idolatry 
were  aggravated  by  ingratitude ;  for  the  people  of  Israel 
had  forgotten  the  destruction  of  the  mighty  Amorites  and 
their  own  marvellous  deliverance  from  Egypt.  Hence  the 
prophet  announces,  though  somewhat  darkly,  the  approach 
of  divine  judgment :  — 

"  Behold",  I  will  press  you  in  your  place, 
As  a  cart  presseth  that  is  full  of  sheaves. 
And  flight  shall  perish  from  the  swift, 
And  the  strong  shall  not  strengthen  his  force, 
Neither  shall  the  mighty  deliver  himself: 
Neither  shall  he  stand  that  handleth  the  bow ; 
And  he  that  is  swift  of  foot  shall  not  deliver  himself; 
Neither  shall  he  that  rideth  a  horse  deliver  himself; 
And  he  that  is  courageous  among  the  mighty 
Shall  flee  away  naked  in  that  day,  saith  the  Lord."2 

Morality  and  Ritual.  —  In  the  second  part  of  the  book  of 
Amos  (chapters  3-6),  we  have  a  series  of  three  discourses, 
in  which  the  prophet's  message  is  repeated  in  varied  and 
impressive  form.  Each  discourse  begins  with  the  em- 
phatic address,  "  Hear  ye  this  word."  In  his  strong 
ethical  sense  we  recognize  the  genuine  prophetic  spirit  of 
Amos.  In  place  of  the  injustice,  oppression,  and  iniquity 
of  Israel,  he  vigorously  urges  righteousness:  — 

"  Seek  good,  and  not  evil,  that  ye  may  live  ; 
And  so  the  Lord,  the  God  of  hosts,  shall  be  with  you,  as  ye  say. 
Hate  the  evil,  and  love  the  good, 
And  establish  judgment  in  the  gate  : 
It  may  be  that  the  Lord  God  of  hosts  will  be  gracious 
Unto  the  remnant  of  Joseph."  3 

1  Amos  2  :  6-8.  2  Amos  2  : 13-16.  3  Amos  5 :  14,  15. 


226  4 AT  INTRODUCTION   TO   BIBLE  STUDY 

When  the  prophet  found  that  the  people  of  Israel  were 
disposed  to  defend  their  piety  by  pointing  to  the  splendor 
and  regularity  of  their  assemblies  and  sacrifices,  he  breaks 
forth  with  indignation  in  the  name  of  Jehovah  :  — 
"  I  hate,  I  despise  your  feast  days, 

And  I  will  take  no  delight  in  your  solemn  assemblies. 

Yea,  though  ye  offer  me  burnt  offerings  and  your  meat  offerings 

I  will  not  accept  them  ; 

Neither  will  I  regard  the  peace  offerings  of  your  fat  beasts. 

Take  thou  away  from  Me  the  noise  of  thy  songs  ; 

For  I  will  not  hear  the  melody  of  thy  viols. 

But  let  judgment  roll  down  as  waters, 

And  righteousness  as  a  mighty  stream."1 

A  Picture  of  Luxury.  —  In  the  pride  of  their  wealth  and 
power,  the  people  of  the  northern  kingdom  felt  a  sense  of 
security.  They  fancied  that  "  the  evil  day  "  was  far  off ; 
and  in  their  self-complacent  confidence,  they  gave  them- 
selves up  to  all  the  intoxication  of  Oriental  luxury.  In 
denouncing  their  voluptuous  self-indulgence,  the  prophet 
gives  us  an  illuminating  picture  of  the  social  customs  of 
his  day  :  — 

"  Woe  to  them  that  are  at  ease  in  Zion, 

And  trust  in  the  mountain  of  Samaria. 

****** 
"  Ye  that  put  far  away  the  evil  day, 

And  cause  the  seat  of  violence  to  come  near; 

That  lie  upon  beds  of  ivory, 

And  stretch  themselves  upon  their  couches, 

And  eat  the  lambs  out  of  the  flock, 

And  the  calves  out  of  the  midst  of  the  stall ; 

That  chant  to  the  sound  of  the  viol, 

And  invent  to  themselves  instruments  of  music,  like  David ; 

That  drink  wine  in  bowls 

And  anoint  themselves  with  the  chief  ointments  ; 

But  they  are  not  grieved  for  the  affliction  of  Joseph."2 

1  Amos  5 :  21-24.  2  Amos  6:  i,  3-6. 


STUDIES  IN   THE  EARLIER  MINOR  PROPHETS      227 

The  consequences  of  this  life  of  idleness,  oppression, 
and  luxury  were  not  difficult  to  foresee.  No  nation  can 
long  survive  under  those  conditions.  Amos  discerned  the 
ambition  and  might  of  Assyria  ;  and  without  naming  the 
conqueror,  he  plainly  declares  to  Israel,  "  I  will  cause  you 
to  go  into  captivity  beyond  Damascus,  saith  the  Lord, 
whose  name  is  the  God  of  hosts."1 

Part  Third.  —  The  last  three  chapters  of  Amos,  which 
constitute  a  distinct  section,  consist  of  a  series  of  visions, 
with  a  historical  interlude,  and  an  epilogue  of  hope.  In 
the  eighth  and  ninth  chapters,  the  denunciation  of  woes 
becomes  more  definite  and  more  terrible :  — 

"  And  it  shall  come  to  pass  in  that  day,  saith  the  Lord  God, 
That  I  will  cause  the  sun  to  go  down  at  noon, 
And  I  will  darken  the  earth  in  the  clear  day: 
And  I  will  turn  your  feasts  into  mourning, 
And  all  your  songs  into  lamentation ; 
And  I  will  bring  up  sackcloth  upon  all  loins, 
And  baldness  upon  every  head  ; 
And  I  will  make  it  as  the  mourning  for  an  only  son 
And  the  end  thereof  as  a  bitter  day."  2 

But  "  the  house  of  Jacob  "  is  not  to  be  utterly  destroyed. 
With  an  immovable  confidence  in  the  goodness  and  favor 
of  God,  the  prophet  foresees,  beyond  the  days  of  evil,  an 
age  of  renewed  prosperity  and  blessing.  The  Assyrian 
captivity,  as  he  believed,  would  not  be  perpetual;  and 
hence,  speaking  in  the  name  of  Jehovah,  he  declares :  — 

"  I  will  bring  again  the  captivity  of  My  people  Israel, 
And  they  shall  build  the  waste  cities,  and  inhabit  them  ; 
And  they  shall  plant  vineyards,  and  drink  the  wine  thereof; 
They  shall  also  make  gardens,  and  eat  the  fruit  of  them, 
And  I  will  plant  them  upon  their  land, 
And  they  shall  no  more  be  pulled  up  out  of  their  land  which  I  have 

given  them, 
Saith  the  Lord  thy  God."  8 

1  Amos  5:27;  6:7.  2  Amos  8  :  9,  10.  3  Amos  9:  14,  15. 


228  .4 AT  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

Literary  Style.  —  In  view  of  the  rural  antecedents  of 
Amos,  it  has  been  customary  to  ascribe  to  his  writings  a 
degree  of  homely  rusticity.  As  we  read  over  his  prophecies, 
we  discover  reminiscences  of  his  earlier  life.  He  speaks  of 
threshing  instruments,  of  harvest  carts  loaded  with  sheaves, 
of  shepherds  fighting  with  wild  beasts,  of  the  labors  pf  the 
ploughman,  and  of  other  rural  pursuits  and  objects  as  he  had 
observed  them  on  the  hills  and  in  the  vales  of  Tekoa. 

But,  as  will  have  been  observed  from  the  extracts  given, 
the  style  of  Amos  shows  no  rustic  uncouthness.  His  dis- 
courses are  skilfully  put  together ;  his  thought  moves  on  a 
high  plane ;  and  his  sentences  exhibit  a  satisfying  artistic 
finish.  Though  he  falls  below  Isaiah  in  grandeur  of  thought 
and  intensity  of  expression,  he  shows  himself  a  vigorous 
thinker  and  writer.  It  is  evident  that  his  earlier  years  were 
not  wholly  taken  up  with  tending  sheep ;  there  must  have 
been  days  and  nights  given  to  studying  the  literature  of  his 
people  and  to  pondering  the  deep  things  of  God. 

Obadiah.  —  The  prophecy  of  Obadiah  consists  of  a  single 
chapter,  and  has  the  distinction  of  being  the  shortest  book 
in  the  Old  Testament.  Its  date  has  been  a  matter  of  dispute 
among  biblical  scholars ;  but  the  statements  of  the  tenth 
verse,  which  speaks  of  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  as  a  past 
fact,  seem  to  refer  to  the  destruction  of  the  city  by  Nebu- 
chadnezzar in  586  B.C.  The  prophet  may,  therefore,  be  re- 
garded as  post-exilic. 

Nothing  whatever  is  known  of  the  prophet ;  the  introduc- 
tion merely  announces  "  the  vision  of  Obadiah."  He  voices 
the  age-long  hostility  of  his  people  against  Edom,  whose 
doom  or  judgment  he  declares  in  brief  but  striking  terms  :  — 

"  Though  thou  exalt  thyself  as  the  eagle, 
And  though  thou  set  thy  nest  among  the  stars, 
Thence  will  I  bring  thee  down,  saith  the  Lord." 


STUDIES  IN   THE  EARLIER  MINOR  PROPHETS      2  29 

The  Occasion.  —  The  occasion  that  evoked  the  prophecy 
is  clearly  stated.  Edom  had  taken  part  with  the  Chaldeans 
in  the  invasion  of  Judah,  and  had  rejoiced  at  the  downfall 
of  Jerusalem.  This  alien  alliance  of  the  children  of  Esau 
seemed  to  the  prophet  to  call  for  condemnation  and  judg- 
ment :  — 

"  For  thy  violence  against  thy  brother  Jacob 
Shame  shall  cover  thee,  and  thou  shalt  be  cut  off  forever. 
In  the  day  that  thou  stoodest  on  the  other  side, 
In  the  day  that  the  strangers  carried  away  his  forces, 
And  foreigners  entered  into  his  gates,  and  cast  lots  upon  Jerusalem, 
Even  thou  wast  as  one  of  them. 

But  thou  shouldest  not  have  looked  on  the  day  of  thy  brother 
In  the  day  that  he  became  a  stranger ; 

Neither  shouldest  thou  have  rejoiced  over  the  children  of  Judah 
In  the  day  of  their  destruction  ; 
Neither  shouldest  thou  have  spoken  proudly  in  the  day  of  distress." 

Future  of  Zion.  —  The  prophet  concludes  his  brief  dis- 
course in  a  triumphant  tone.  Though  Edom  and  "  all  the 
heathen  "  be  destroyed,  the  glory  of  Israel  shall  be  re- 
vived :  — 

"  Upon  mount  Zion  shall  be  deliverance, 
And  there  shall  be  holiness  ; 

And  the  house  of  Jacob  shall  possess  their  possessions. 
And  the  house  of  Jacob  shall  be  a  fire, 
And  the  house  of  Joseph  a  flame,  and  the  house  of  Esau  for  stubble." 

The  numerous  parallels  between  Obadiah  and  the  doom 
prophecy  against  Edom  in  the  forty-ninth  chapter  of  Jere- 
miah make  it  perfectly  evident  that  one  borrowed  from  the 
other,  unless  both  drew  upon  an  earlier  document.  The 
question  has  given  rise  to  much  critical  discussion,  which, 
however,  does  not  affect  the  truth  of  the  message  of 
either  prophet. 


230  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

RESEARCH   WORK 
HOSEA 

The  unfaithfulness  of  Israel  in  symbol,  Hos.  1-3. 

A  reproof  of  people  and  priests,  Hos.  4. 

An  announcement  of  divine  judgments,  Hos.  5. 

An  exhortation  to  repentance,  Hos.  6. 

A  reproof  of  Israel,  Hos.  7. 

Assyrian  invasion  foretold,  Hos.  8. 

Sin  and  judgment,  Hos.  10. 

Ingratitude  and  punishment,  Hos.  n. 

Reproof  of  Ephraim  and  Judah,  Hos.  12,  13. 

Promises  of  blessing,  Hos.  14. 


JOEL 

A  plague  of  locusts,  Joel  i . 
The  coming  day  of  the  Lord,  Joel  2  :  1-17. 
Repentance  and  blessing,  Joel  2  :  18-32. 
The  heathen  destroyed,  Judah  saved,  Joel  3. 


AMOS 

Judgments  against  various  nations,  Amos  I, 

The  punishment  of  Israel,  Amos  2  :  6-16. 

Oppression  and  ruin,  Amos  3,  4. 

An  elegy  over  Israel,  Amos  5. 

Luxury  punished  with  captivity,  Amos  6. 

Visions  and  their  explanations,  Amos  7-9. 


OBADIAH 
The  doom  of  Edom,  Obad.  I. 


CHAPTER   XIII 

STUDIES    IN   JONAH,    MICAH,  NAHUM,  AND  HABAKKUK 

Book  of  Jonah.  —  The  book  of  Jonah,  though  often  made 
a  stumbling-block,  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  productions 
in  the  Old  Testament.  As  an  artistic  composition,  it  is 
worthy  of  high  praise ;  but  its  .literary  excellence  falls  into 
insignificance  in  comparison  with  its  spiritual  message. 
Unlike  the  other  prophetical  books,  it  is  wholly  narrative 
in  form  ;  but  the  framers  of  the  Old  Testament  canon  made 
no  mistake  in  placing  Jonah,  not  among  the  historical  writ- 
ings, but  among  the  prophets. 

The  hero  of  the  book  is  "  Jonah  the  son  of  Amittai,  the 
prophet,  of  Gath-hepher."  1  He  lived  in  the  early  days  of 
Jeroboam  II.,  and  predicted  the  military  successes  of  that 
sovereign.  He  lived  at  a  time  when  Nineveh  was  the  cap- 
ital of  the  world  empire  of  Assyria.  But  it  is  safe  to  say 
that  Jonah  was  not  the  author  of  the  book  that  bears  his 
name.  The  language  of  the  narrative  belongs  to  a  later 
period ;  and,  as  we  shall  presently  see,  its  message  is 
adapted  to  post-exilic  times.  It  was  probably  written  some 
time  in  the  fourth  century  before  Christ. 

The  Story.  —  The  story  of  Jonah  is  well  known.  The 
prophet  was  divinely  commissioned  to  rebuke  the  great 
city  of  Nineveh  for  its  wickedness.  The  task  was  an  un- 
welcome one  ;  and  to  escape  its  responsibilities,  the  narrow- 
minded  prophet  embarked  at  Joppa  for  the  distant  West. 
But  he  was  not  permitted  to  escape  the  divine  call ;  and 

1  2  Kings  14 :  25. 
231 


232  AN   INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

when  a  severe  storm  arose,  of  which  he  acknowledged  him- 
self the  cause,  he  was  hurled  into  the  sea.  He  was  swal- 
lowed by  a  great  fish,  which  after  "  three  days  and  three 
nights  "  cast  him  upon  dry  land. 

Humbled  by  this  extraordinary  experience,  Jonah  now 
proceeded,  in  obedience  to  a  second  divine  call,  to'  fulfil 
his  prophetic  mission.  He  entered  the  mighty  capital  of 
Assyria,  and  began  to  proclaim  aloud  in  its  streets,  "  Yet 
forty  days,  and  Nineveh  shall  be  destroyed."  The  city 
was  deeply  moved,  and  promptly  repented  in  sackcloth 
and  ashes.  "  And  God  saw  their  works,  that  they  turned 
from  their  evil  way  ;  and  God  repented  of  the  evil,  which 
He  said  He  would  do  unto  them ;  and  He  did  it  not." 

This  act  of  mercy  toward  a  heathen  city  displeased  the 
surly  prophet.  In  his  anger  he  made  himself  a  shelter 
east  of  the  city,  and  took  up  his  abode  there  to  await  re- 
sults. A  gourd  sprang  up  in  a  night  to  afford  him  a 
grateful  protection  from  the  heat.  He  rejoiced  in  its  shade  ; 
but  it  withered  as  quickly  as  it  came.  The  prophet  was 
vexed  beyond  measure,  and  thus  gave  an  opportunity 
to  present  the  great  lesson  of  the  book.  "  And  God 
said  to  Jonah,  Doest  thou  well  to  be  angry  for  the  gourd  ? 
And  he  said,  I  do  well  to  be  angry  even  unto  death. 
And  the  Lord  said,  Thou  hast  had  pity  on  the  gourd,  for 
the  which  thou  hast  not  labored,  neither  madest  it  grow ; 
which  came  up  in  a  night,  and  perished  in  a  night ;  and 
should  not  I  have  pity  on  Nineveh,  that  great  city ; 
wherein  are  more  than  sixscore  thousand  persons  that  can- 
not discern  between  their  right  hand  and  their  left  hand ; 
and  also  much  cattle  ?  " 

Lesson  of  Tolerance. — The  book  of  Jonah  is  full  of 
moral  lessons,  which  devout  scholars  have  often  pointed 
out.  It  teaches,  for  example,  that  it  is  vain  for  a  prophet 


JONAH,   MICAH,   NAHUM,   AND  HABAKKUK        233 

to  try  to  escape  from  a  duty  which  has  been  divinely  laid 
upon  him.  It  illustrates,  as  Jeremiah  had  pointed  out, 
that  all  prophecy  is  conditional.  It  shows  that  the  way 
of  salvation  is  through  repentance  and  reformation. 

But  all  these  spiritual  truths  are  to  be  viewed  merely  as 
incidental.  The  great  purpose  of  the  book  is  revealed  in 
the  closing  verses,  as  quoted  above.  That  purpose  is  to 
show,  in  opposition  to  Jewish  narrowness  and  intolerance 
after  the  exile,  that  God's  mercy  and  love  include  all 
nations.  The  book  has  the  breadth  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, and  plainly  teaches  that  all  men,  regardless  of 
nationality,  may  be  saved  through  repentance  and  faith. 
It  is  the  clear  perception  of  this  truth,  in  the  midst  of 
Jewish  hostility  and  exclusiveness,  that  makes  the  great- 
ness of  the  book  of  Jonah.1 

A  Type  of  Israel.  —  As  already  intimated,  the  book  of 
Jonah  is  to  be  regarded,  like  the  story  of  the  Prodigal  Son 
or  the  Good  Samaritan,  as  a  parable  rather  than  as  history. 
It  probably  embodies  traditional  historic  elements ;  but 
these  have  been  freely  fashioned  by  the  inspired  writer  to 
convey  a  great  message  to  his  people.  The  story  of  the 
great  fish,  the  sudden  conversion  of  an  imperial  capital, 
and  the  marvellous  growth  of  the  gourd  are  all  happily 
imagined  incidents  to  carry  forward  the  narrative  to  its 
magnificent  conclusion. 

Jonah  is  a  type  of  the  narrow-minded  Jews  of  the 
author's  day.  He  is  unwilling  to  preach  to  heathen  at  all ; 
and  when  they  turn  to  Jehovah  in  repentance,  a  result  at 

1  "  The  real  design  of  the  narrative  is  to  teach,  in  opposition  to  the  narrow,  ex- 
clusive view,  which  was  too  apt  to  be  popular  with  the  Jews,  that  God's  puiposes 
of  grace  are  not  limited  to  Israel  alone,  but  that  they  are  open  to  the  heathen  as 
well,  if  only  they  abandon  their  sinful  courses,  and  turn  to  Him  in  true  penitence. 
.  .  .  Jonah  appears  as  the  representative  of  the  popular  Israelitish  creed."  — 
DRIVER,  "  Literature  of  the  Old  Testament,"  p.  323. 


234  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO   BIBLE  STUDY 

which  he  should  have  heartily  rejoiced,  he  is  profoundly 
grieved.  This  narrow  and  selfish  spirit  is  portrayed  as  in 
direct  opposition  to  the  all-embracing  compassion  and  love 
of  God.  Viewed  in  this  light,  the  book  of  Jonah  is  seen 
to  possess  the  character  of  a  satire  upon  post-exilic  Juda- 
ism. 

An  Allegory.  —  The  book  of  Jonah  has  sometimes  been 
regarded  as  an  allegory,  in  which  is  portrayed  the  history 
of  Israel.  According  to  this  view,  Jonah  symbolizes  the 
Hebrew  nation.  Like  the  prophet,  the  people  of  Israel 
were  intrusted  with  a  divine  mission  to  the  world.  They 
proved  unfaithful  to  the  divine  call,  and  were  consequently 
"swallowed  up,"  like  the  prophet  in  the  great  fish,  by  the 
mighty  empire  of  Babylonia. 

-"~Tn  exile  the  Hebrew  people  turned  unto  the  Lord,  and 
were  restored,  like  the  prophet,  to  their  native  land.  But 
they  were  not  healed  of  their  narrow  and  unsympathetic 
spirit ;  and,  like  Jonah,  they  were  grieved  that  the  divine 
judgments,  foretold  by  the  prophets,  were  not  at  once  ex- 
ecuted upon  the  gentile  nations.  This  allegorical  interpre- 
tation has  the  merit  of  ingenuity ;  but  it  is  difficult  to 
believe  that  the  gifted  author,  in  shaping  his  artistic  nar- 
rative, ever  had  it  in  mind. 

Jonah  in  the  Gospels. — There  is  an  interesting  reference 
to  the  narrative  of  Jonah  in  Matthew  and  Luke.  The 
Pharisees  on  one  occasion  requested  a  sign  from  Jesus. 
He  refused  the  miracle  they  desired ;  and  accordingly  He 
replied  :  "  This  generation  is  an  evil  generation  :  it  seeketh 
after  a  sign ;  and  there  shall  no  sign  be  given  to  it  but  the 
sign  of  Jonah.  For  even  as  Jonah  became  a  sign  unto  the 
Ninevites,  so  shall  also  the  Son  of  man  be  to  this  generation. 
The  men  of  Nineveh  shall  stand  up  in  the  judgment  with 
this  generation ;  and  shall  condemn  it ;  for  they  repented 


JONAH,   MICAH,   NAHUM,  AND  HABAKKUK         235 

at  the  preaching  of  Jonah :  and  behold,  a  greater  than 
Jonah  is  here."  1 

This  incident  shows  our  Saviour's  familiarity  with  the 
book  of  Jonah.  He  shared  its  broad  views  of  God's  love; 
and  in  His  own  ministry  of  mercy  He  not  only  included 
Gentiles,  but  also  looked  upon  Himself  as  the  Saviour 
of  the  world.  His  final  charge  to  His  disciples  was 
to  go  "  into  all  the  world,  and  preach  the  gospel  to 
every  creature."2 

Micah.  —  As  we  learn  from  the  introduction  to  the  book 
of  Micah,  the  prophet  lived  in  "  the  days  of  Jotham,  Ahaz, 
and  Hezekiah,  Kings  of  Judah."  He  was  a  younger  con- 
temporary of  Isaiah ;  and  if  he  prophesied  in  the  days  of 
Jotham  and  Ahaz,  about  which  there  is  some  doubt,  he 
was  likewise  a  contemporary  of  Hosea.  There  is  a  notice 
of  his  work  in  Jeremiah  (26,:  18),  which  tells  us  that 
"  Micah  the  Morasthite  prophesied  in  the  days  of  Hezekiah, 
King  of  Judah."  As  indicated  in  the  sixth  verse  of  the 
first  chapter,  the  destruction  of  Samaria  belongs  to  the 
future  ;  hence  the  date  of  the  earlier  prophecies  at  least 
must  be  fixed  before  the  year  722  B.C. 

Like  Amos,  the  prophet  Micah  was  of  rural  origin.  He 
came  from  the  village  of  Moresheth,  which  was  situated  in 
the  maritime  plain  not  far  from  Gath.  He  was  a  man  of 
penetrating  judgment  and  strong  moral  sense ;  and  he 
pointed  out,  with  masculine  vigor,  the  various  iniquities  of 
Judah  and  Israel.  Though  there  are  critical  difficulties  in 

1  Luke  ii :  29,  30,  32.     In  the  parallel  passage  in  Matthew  there  is  this  additional 
statement :  "  For  as  Jonah  was  three  days  and  three  nights  in  the  belly  of  the  whale : 
so  shall  the  Son  of  man  be  three  days  and  three  nights  in  the  heart  of  the  earth." 
This  statement  seems  to  be  an  interpolation  —  the  effort  of  some  copyist  or  scribe 
to  throw  light  on  the  Master's  meaning.     This  view  is  confirmed  by  the  incorrect- 
ness of  the  statement;  for  Jesus  was  not  in  the  tomb  for  three  nights.     He  was 
crucified  on  Friday  and  rose  on  Sunday. 

2  Mark  16  :  15. 


236  AN  INTRODUCTION    TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

parts  of  the  book,  the  prophet's  message  is,  in  the  main, 
clear  and  strong. 

Reproof  and  Judgment.  — The  first  three  chapters,  which 
make  a  distinct  section  of  the  book,  are  chiefly  concerned 
with  reproof  and  judgment.  In  Micah's  denunciation  of 
the  sins  of  Samaria  and  Jerusalem,  we  recognize  the 
genuine  spirit  of  the  Hebrew  prophet.  His  prophecy 
opens  with  a  fine  description  of  the  coming  of  Jehovah  in 
judgment:  — 

"  Hear,  all  ye  people  ;  hearken,  O  earth,  and  all  that  therein  is  : 
And  let  the  Lord  God  be  witness  against  you, 
The  Lord  from  His  holy  temple. 
For  behold  the  Lord  cometh  forth  out  of  His  place, 
And  will  come  down,  and  tread  upon  the  high  places  of  the  earth. 
And  the  mountains  shall  be  molten  under  Him, 
And  the  valleys  shall  be  cleft,  as  wax  before  the  fire, 
And  as  the  waters  that  are  poured  down  a  steep  place." 

In  the  first  three  chapters  the  reproofs  of  iniquity 
and  the  menace  of  judgment  are  repeated,  always  in 
stronger  and  more  definite  terms.1  In  the  third  chapter 
the  ruling  classes  are  particularly  denounced  for  their 
injustice,  oppression  of  the  poor,  love  of  evil,  and  greed  of 
gain  :  - 

"  Hear  this,  I  pray  you,  ye  heads  of  the  house  of  Jacob, 
And  princes  of  the  house  of  Israel, 
That  abhor  judgment,  and  pervert  all  equity. 
They  build  up  Zion  with  blood,  and  Jerusalem  with  iniquity. 
The  heads  thereof  judge  for  reward, 
And  the  priests  thereof  teach  for  hire, 

1  "A  moral  indignation,  truly  awe-inspiring,  overpowers  him  at  all  he  sees  and 
experiences.  Especially  the  sins  of  the  nobility  of  Jerusalem,  those  unscrupulous 
bloodsuckers  and  despoilers  of  the  people,  who  stopped  at  naught  if  they  but  had 
the  power,  are  so  atrocious  that  they  can  only  be  atoned  for  by  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem. —  CORNILL,  "  The  Prophets  of  Israel,"  p.  69. 


JONAH,  MICAH,  NAHUM,   AND  HABAKKUK        237 

And  the  prophets  thereof  divine  for  money: 

Yet  will  they  lean  upon  the  Lord,  and  say, 

Is  not  the  Lord  among  us  ?  none  evil  can  come  to  us."  * 

.  The  result  of  this  moral  degeneracy,  as  the  prophets 
always  and  truly  felt,  could  be  only  destruction.  Hence 
Micah,  speaking  in  the  name  of  Jehovah,  declares  :  — 

"  I  will  make  Samaria  as  an  heap  of  the  field, 
And  as  plantings  of  a  vineyard  : 

And  I  will  pour  down  the  stones  thereof  into  the  valley, 
And  I  will  discover  the  foundations  thereof. 
Therefore  shall  Zion  be  ploughed  as  a  field, 
And  Jerusalem  shall  become  heaps, 
And  the  mountain  of  the  house  as  the  high  places  of  the  forest."  2 

A  Vision  of  Glory. —  In  chapters  4  and  5,  which 
make  the  second  division  of  the  book  of  Micah,  we  have 
a  picture  of  the  future  glory  of  Zion.  Jerusalem  is  to 
become  the  centre  of  true  religion ;  and  as  its  beneficent 
principles  take  possession  of  the  nations,  the  implements 
of  war  will  be  transformed  to  serve  the  arts  of  peace :  — 

"  But  in  the  last  days  it  shall  come  to  pass, 
That  the  mountain  of  the  house  of  the  Lord 
Shall  be  established  in  the  top  of  the  mountains, 
And  it  shall  be  exalted  above  the  hills ;  and  people  shall  flow  unto  it. 
And  many  nations  shall  come,  and  say, 
Come,  and  let  us  go  up  to  the  mountain  of  the  Lord, 
And  to  the  house  of  the  God  of  Jacob  ; 

And  He  will  teach  us  of  His  ways,  and  we  will  walk  in  His  paths  : 
For  the  law  shall  go  forth  of  Zion, 
And  the  word  of  the  Lord  from  Jerusalem. 
And  He  shall  judge  among  many  people, 
And  rebuke  strong  nations  afar  off; 
And  they  shall  beat  their  swords  into  ploughshares, 
And  their  spears  into  pruning-hooks  : 
Nation  shall  not  lift  up  a  sword  against  nation, 
Neither  shall  they  learn  war  any  more."  8 

1  Mic.  3 :  9-11.  2  Mic.  i :  6 ;  3 :  12.  8  Mic.  4  :  1-3. 


238  ,4 AT  INTRODUCTION   TO   BIBLE  STUDY 

The  town  from  which  the  future  ruler  of  Israel  was  to 
come  is  definitely  indicated  :  it  is  not  the  proud  metropolis, 
but  the  humble  village  of  Bethlehem.  As  we  have  already 
seen,  this  statement  of  the  prophet  was  understood  by  the 
Jews,  at  the  beginning  of  our  era,  to  refer  to  the  Messiah 
or  King  of  Israel:  — 

"  But  thou,  Beth-lehem  Ephratah, 
Though  thou  be  little  among  the  thousands  of  Judah, 
Yet  out  of  thee  shall  he  come  forth  unto  Me  that  is  to  be  ruler  in  Israel ; 
Whose  goings  forth  have  been  from  of  old,  from  everlasting." l 

Dramatic  Prophecy.  —  The  last  two  chapters  of  Micah, 
which  form  the  third  division  of  the  book,  have  a  distinc- 
tive character.  They  are  in  the  form  of  a  dramatic  dia- 
logue, in  which  the  speakers  are  Jehovah  and  Israel.  The 
setting  of  the  drama  is  magnificent,  for  the  controversy 
takes  place  in  the  presence  of  the  mountains.  Jehovah 
speaks  first,  and  recounts  the  mercies  of  the  past :  — 

"O  My  people,  what  have  I  done  unto  thee? 
And  wherein  have  I  wearied  thee?  testify  against  Me. 
For  I  brought  thee  up  out  of  the  land  of  Egypt, 
And  redeemed  thee  out  of  the  house  of  servants  ; 
And  I  sent  before  thee  Moses,  Aaron,  and  Miriam. 
O  My  people,  remember  now  what  Balak,  King  of  Moab,  consulted, 
And  what  Balaam  the  son  of  Beor  answered  him." 

In  reply  to  this  appeal  of  Jehovah,  the  people  virtually 
admit  their  ingratitude  and  sin,  and  ask  what  they  shall 
do  to  make  atonement : — - 
"Wherewith  shall  I  come  before  the  Lord, 

And  bow  myself  before  the  high  God? 

Shall  I  come  before  Him  with  burnt  offerings,  with  calves  of  a  year  old  ? 

Will  the  Lord  be  pleased  with  thousands  of  rams, 

Or  with  ten  thousands  of  rivers  of  oil  ? 

Shall  I  give  my  first-born  for  my  transgression, 

The  fruit  of  my  body  for  the  sin  of  my  soul  ?  " 
l  Mic.  5 :  2.    See  Matt.  2 :  3-6, 


JONAH,   MICAH,   NAHUM,   AND  HABAKKUK        239 

At  this  point  the  mountains,  who  are  imagined  to  be  sit- 
ting in  judgment,  make  known  their  decision,  which  is  the 
message  of  the  prophet :  — 

"  He  hath  showed  thee,  O  man,  what  is  good ; 
And  what  doth  the  Lord  require  of  thee, 
But  to  do  justly,  and  to  love  .mercy,  and  to  walk  humbly  with  God?  " 

Beginning  with  the  ninth  verse  of  the  sixjh  chapter,  and 
extending  to  the  sixth  verse  of  the  seventh  chapter,  we 
have  another  dramatic  prophecy,  in  which  Jehovah  and  the 
prophet  are  the  speakers.  The  picture  of  the  social  con- 
dition of  the  Hebrews  presented  in  this  dialogue  could  not 
well  be  in  darker  colors.  At  the  close  of  the  book  we  have 
one  of  the  noblest  portrayals  of  the  divine  character  to  be 
found  in  the  Old  Testament :  — 

"  Who  is  a  God  like  unto  Thee,  that  pardoneth  iniquity. 
And  passeth  by  the  transgression  of  the  remnant  of  His  heritage? 
He  retaineth  not  His  anger  forever,  because  He  delighteth  in  mercy. 
He  will  turn  again,  He  will  have  compassion  upon  us ; 
He  will  subdue  our  iniquities  ; 

And  Thou  wilt  cast  all  their  sins  into  the  depths  of  the  sea. 
Thou  wilt  perform  the  truth  to  Jacob,  and  the  mercy  to  Abraham, 
Which  Thou  hast  sworn  unto  our  fathers  from  the  days  of  old." 

Nahum.  —  The  book  of  Nahum  is  a  doom  prophecy 
directed  against  the  city  of  Nineveh.  Nothing  further 
is  known  of  the  author  than  his  title,  "the  Elkoshite." 
This  designation  is  derived  from  the  village  of  Elkosh  in 
Galilee,  which  was  probably  the  prophet's  'native  place. 
If  this  supposition  is  correct,  Nahum  is  the  last  prophet 
of  northern  Israel. 

There  is  no  direct  statement  of  the  time  when  the  proph- 
ecy was  written ;  but  the  date  may  be  approximately 
determined  by  two  events  to  which  the  prophecy  refers. 


240  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO   BIBLE  STUDY 

In  the  third  chapter  there  is  a  description  of  the  destruc- 
tion of  No,  or  Thebes,  in  Egypt.  Addressing  the  confident 
city  of  Nineveh,  whose  destruction  he  has  threatened,  the 
poet  asks :  - 

"  Art  thou  better  than  populous  No, 

That  was  situate  among  the  rivers,  t 

That  had  waters  round  about  it, 

Whose  rampart  was  the  sea,  and  her  wall  was  from  the  sea? 

Ethiopia  and  Egypt  were  her  strength,  and  it  was  infinite ; 

Put  and  Lubim  were  thy  helpers. 

Yet  was  she  carried  away,  she  went  into  captivity ; 

Her  young  children  also  were  dashed  in  pieces 

At  the  top  of  all  the  streets ; 

And  they  cast  lots  for  her  honorable  men, 

And  all  her  great  men  were  bound  in  chains." 

The  capture  of  Thebes,  as  thus  described,  took  place 
during  the  invasion  of  Egypt  by  Asshurbanipal  about  660 
B.C.  The  destruction  of  Nineveh,  which  is  the  subject  of 
Nahum's  prophecy,  took  place  in  606  B.C.  Hence  it  is 
evident  that  the  prophet  wrote  between  these  two  dates. 

Purpose.  —  The  prophet  probably  had  a  twofold  purpose 
in  declaring  the  approaching  doom  of  Nineveh.  In  the 
first  place,  he  meant  to  comfort  his  people  by  the  assur- 
ance that  the  destroyer  of  Israel  was  himself  to  be  de- 
stroyed. In  the  second  place,  he  wished  to  declare  the 
great  truth  that  iniquity,  even  in  the  mightiest  nation, 
inevitably  leads  to  divine  judgment.  He  denounces  Nin- 
eveh as  a  "  bloody  city,  full  of  lies  and  robbery."  1  For 
this  reason,  speaking  in  the  name  of  Jehovah,  the  prophet 
declares  :  — 

'?  Behold  I  am  against  thee,  saith  the  Lord  of  hosts ; 
And  I  will  discover  thy  skirts  upon  thy  face, 
And  I  will  show  the  nations  thy  nakedness, 
And  the  kingdoms  thy  shame."  2 
1  Nahum  3:1.  2  Nahum  3 : 5. 


JONAH,   MICAH,   NAHUM,   AND  HABAKKUK        241 

In  Nahum  we  miss  the  fine  spiritual  quality  belonging 
to  Hosea,  Amos,  and  Isaiah  ;  yet,  as  Farrar  remarks,  the 
prophet  "forcibly  brings  before  us  God's  moral  govern- 
ment of  the  world,  and  the  duty  of  trust  in  Him  as  the 
avenger  of  wrong-doers,  the  sole  source  of  security  and 
peace  to  those  who  love  Him." 

Poetic  Quality.  —  The  poetic  quality  of  Nahum's  proph- 
ecy is  unusually  fine.  Though  sudden  transitions  of 
thought,  as  in  the  first  chapter,  sometimes  make  his  mean- 
ing obscure,  his  descriptions  are  vivid  and  admirable.  The 
prophecy  opens  with  a  noble  passage  descriptive  of  the 
Lord's  coming  in  judgment :  — 

"God  is  jealous,  and  the  Lord  revengeth  ; 
The  Lord  revengeth,  and  is  furious ; 
The  Lord  will  take  vengeance  on  His  adversaries, 
And  He  reserveth  wrath  for  His  enemies. 
The  Lord  is  slow  to  anger,  and  great  in  power, 
And  will  not  at  all  acquit  the  wicked  : 

The  Lord  hath  His  way  in  the  whirlwind  and  in  the  storm, 
And  the  clouds  are  the  dust  of  His  feet. 

He  rebuketh  the  sea,  and  maketh  it  dry,  and  drieth  up  all  the  rivers : 
Bashan  languisheth,  and  Carmel,  and  the  flower  of  Lebanon  lan- 

guisheth. 

The  mountains  quake  at  Him,  and  the  hills  melt, 
And  the  earth  is  burned  at  his  presence, 
Yea,  the  world,  and  all  that  dwell  therein." 

The  second  chapter  contains  a  description  of  the  capture 
of  Nineveh  by  the  allied  Medes  and  Babylonians  under 
Cyaxares :  — 

"  The  shield  of  his  mighty  men  is  made  red,  the  valiant  men  are  in 

scarlet : 
The  chariots  flash  with  steel  in  the  day  of  his  preparation." 

The  same  subject  is  further  elaborated  in  the  third 
chapter.  As  the  enemy  enter  the  fated  city,  we  hear,  — 


242  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO   BIBLE  STUDY 

"  The  noise  of  the  whip,  and  the  noise  of  the  rattling  of  wheels  ; 
And  prancing  horses,  and  jumping  chariots  ; 
The  horsemen  mounting,  and  the  flashing  sword,  and  the  glittering 

spear ; 

And  a  multitude  of  slain,  and  a  great  heap  of  carcases  ; 
And  there  is  none  end  of  the  corpses ; 
They  stumble  upon  their  corpses." 

We  may  close  this  brief  study  of  the  prophet  with  the 
appreciative  words  of  McFadyen :  "  Poetically  the  little 
book  of  Nahum  is  one  of  the  finest  in  the  Old  Testament. 
Its  descriptions  are  vivid  and  impetuous :  they  set  us  be- 
fore the  walls  of  the  beleaguered  Nineveh,  and  show  us 
the  war  chariots  of  her  enemies  darting  to  and  fro  like 
lightning,  the  prancing  steeds,  the  flashing  swords,  the 
glittering  spears.  The  poetry  glows  with  passionate  joy 
as  it  contemplates  the  ruin  of  cruel  and  victorious  Assyria."  1 

Habakkuk.  —  Nothing  is  known  of  the  personal  history 
of  Habakkuk.  The  contents  of  his  prophecy  show  that 
he  lived  at  the  time  when  the  Chaldean  power  was  loom- 
ing into  prominence.  Jerusalem  had  not  yet  been  de- 
stroyed, but  its  approaching  doom  was  discernible.  We 
are  safe,  therefore,  in  fixing  the  date  of  Habakkuk's  proph- 
ecy in  the  neighborhood  of  610  B.C. 

The  prophecy  of  Habakkuk  is  in  the  form  of  a  dramatic 
dialogue.  The  prophet  complains  of  the  corrupt  state 
of  society  in  Judah  (i  :  2-4).  He  is  answered  by  Jehovah, 
who  announces,  as  a  divine  judgment,  the  coming  in- 
vasion of  the  Chaldeans  (i  :  5-11).  The  prophet  is  not 
satisfied  with  this  answer,  for  he  cannot  understand  how 
it  is  possible  for  Jehovah  to  use  a  proud,  idolatrous  nation 
to  punish  His  people  (i  :  12-17).  Once  more  Jehovah 
speaks  and  assures  the  prophet  that  the  Chaldeans,  on 

1  McFadyen,  "  Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament,"  p.  206. 


JONAH,   MICAH,   NAHUM,   AND   HABAKKUK        243 

account  of  their  iniquity,  will  in  their  turn  be  destroyed. 
The  prophecy  concludes  with  a  magnificent  ode,  which  is 
called  "  a  prayer  of  Habakkuk." 

The  Prophet  Perplexed.  —  After  this  brief  analysis,  it 
will  be  found  interesting  to  examine  the  several  parts  of 
the  prophecy  more  closely.  The  prophet  beholds  the  wick- 
edness prevalent  in  Judah,  and  is  perplexed,  as  many  have 
been  since  his  day,  to  see  iniquity  prosper  and  righteousness 
trampled  under  foot.  In  the  opening  of  the  dialogue,  the 
prophet  makes  known  his  perplexity  to  Jehovah  :  — 

"  O  Lord,  how  long  shall  I  cry,  and  Thou  wilt  not  hear  ! 
Even  cry  out  unto  Thee  of  violence,  and  Thou  wilt  not  save  ! 
Why  dost  Thou  show  me  iniquity,  and  cause  me  to  behold  grievance  ? 
For  spoiling  and  violence  are  before  me  : 
And  there  are  that  raise  up  strife  and  contention. 
Therefore  the  law  is  slacked,  and  judgment  doth  never  go  forth  : 
For  the  wicked  doth  compass  about  the  righteous ; 
Therefore  wrong  judgment  proceedeth."  l 

In  reply  to  tha  prophet's  complaint  of  unpunished 
wickedness,  Jehovah  declares  that  judgment  is  coming  :  — 

"  For,  lo,  I  raise  up  the  Chaldeans,  that  bitter  and  hasty  nation, 
Which  shall  march  through  the  breadth  of  the  land, 
To  possess  the  dwelling-places  that -are  not  theirs. 
They  are  terrible  and  dreadful : 

Their  judgment  and  their  dignity  proceed  from  themselves. 
Their  horses  also  are  swifter  than  the  leopards, 
And  are  more  fierce  than  the  evening  wolves: 
And  their  horsemen  shall  spread  themselves, 
And  their  horsemen  shall  come  from  far ; 
They  shall  fly  as  the  eagle  that  hasteth  to  eat."  2 

A  Second  Inquiry.  —  The  prophet,  who  recognizes  the 
holiness  and  eternal  power  of  God,  is  troubled  by  another 
doubt,  which  he  lays  before  Jehovah.  How  can  the  proud, 

l  Hab.  i :  2-4.  2  Hab.  i :  6-8. 


244  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO   BIBLE  STUDY 

idolatrous    Chaldeans   be    permitted   to    punish  Judah,   a 
nation  standing  far  higher  in  righteousness  ? 

"  Thou  art  of  purer  eyes  than  to  behold  evil, 
And  canst  not  look  on  iniquity: 

Wherefore  lookest  Thou  upon  them  that  deal  treacherously, 
And  holdest  Thy  tongue  when  the  wicked  devoureth 
The  man  that  is -more  righteous  than  he?  " l 

Then  the  prophet,  in  imagination,  takes  his  stand  upon 
a  watch-tower  to  await  the  answer  of  Jehovah.  It  is  not 
long  delayed  ;  and  the  prophet  learns  that  Babylon,  too, 
shall  perish  for  its  wickedness  :  — 

"  Woe,  to  him  that  getteth  an  evil  gain  for  his  house, 
That  he  may  set  his  nest  on  high, 
That  he  may  be  delivered  from  the  hand  of  evil ! 
Thou  hast  consulted  shame  to  thy  house  by  cutting  off  many  peoples, 
And  hast  sinned  against  thy  soul. 
For  the  stone  shall  cry  out  of  the  wall, 
And  the  beam  out  of  the  timber  shall  answer  it."  2 

A  Notable  Ode.  —  The  closing  ode  is  commonly  regarded 
as  one  of  the  noblest  poems  in  the  Old  Testament.  After 
praying  that  the  Lord's  work  may  be  revived  in  Judah,  the 
prophet  describes  Jehovah's  coming  to  punish  the  nations 
and  redeem  His  people  :  — • 

"  His  glory  covered  the  heavens, 
And  the  earth  was  full  of  His  praise. 
And  His  brightness  was  as  the  light ; 
He  had  rays  coming  forth  from  His  hand  : 
And  there  was  the  hiding  of  His  power. 
Before  Him  went  the  pestilence, 
And  fiery  bolts  went  forth  at  His  feet. 
He  stood  and  measured  the  earth ; 
He  beheld,  and  drove  asunder  the  nations  : 
And  the  eternal  mountains  were  scattered, 
The  everlasting  hills  did  bow."  3 

1  Hab.  1 :  13.  2  Hab.  2 :  19-11.  3  Hab.  3  :  3-6. 


JONAH,   MICAH,   NAHUM,   AND  HABAKKUK        245 

Though  the  sublime  manifestations  of  Jehovah's  power 
filled  the  prophet  with  trembling  fear,  he  retained  his 
exultant  faith  :  — 

"  Yet  I  will  rejoice  in  the  Lord, 
I  will  joy  in  the  God  of  my  salvation. 
Jehovah,  the  Lord,  is  my  strength, 
And  He  maketh  my  feet  like  hinds1  feet, 
And  will  make  me  to  walk  upon  mine  high  places."1 

It  is  well  for  us  when,  like  the  prophet,  we  can  come 
forth  from  our  religious  perplexities  with  this  triumphant 
faith. 


RESEARCH  WORK     . 
JONAH 

The  prophet's  flight  and  punishment,  Jon.  I. 
Jonah's  prayer  of  faith,  Jon.  2. 
The  repentance  of  Nineveh,  Jon.  3. 
A  lesson  of  divine  compassion,  Jon.  4. 

MICAH 

Reproof  and  judgment,  Mic.  1—3. 
Future  glory  of  Zion,  Mic.  4. 
Dramatic  prophecy,  Mic.  6,  7. 

NAHUM 
The  burden  of  Nineveh,  Nah.  1-3. 

HABAKKUK 

A  prophet's  perplexities,  Hab.  I,  2. 
A  prayer  of  Habakkuk,  Hab.  3. 

l  Hab.  3 : 18,  19. 


., 


CHAPTER   XIV 

STUDIES    IN    ZEPHANIAH,    HAGGAI,    ZECHARIAH,    AND 
MALACHI 

Zephaniah.  —  All  that  is  known  of  the  prophet  Zephaniah 
is  given  in  the  introduction  to  his  prophecy.  There  his 
descent  is  recorded  for  four  generations.  In  his  genealogi- 
cal line  he  mentions  Hezekiah,  who  is  supposed  by  some 
scholars  to  be  the  king  of  that  name ;  in  that  case, 
Zephaniah  was  a  prince  as  well  as  prophet.  He  prophe- 
sies "in  the  days  of  Josiah,  King  of  Judah  "  ;  and  the 
moral  conditions  he  describes,  evidently  existed  before  the 
reformation  effected  in  the  eighteenth  year  of  that  sovereign1 
(621  B.C.).  The  date  of  Zephaniah's  prophecy  may  there- 
fore be  approximately  fixed  at  630  B.C. 

This  brief  book  of  prophecy  may  be  divided  into  three 
parts:  (i)  the  menace  of  judgment  (chapter  i);  (2)  the 
admonition  to  reformation  (chapters  2-3  :  7) ;  and  (3)  the 
promise  of  future  glory  (chapter  3  :  8-20).  In  this  ar- 
rangement we  recognize  the  characteristic  spirit  of  Hebrew 
prophecy.  Contemporary  with  Jeremiah,  Zephaniah  points 
out  substantially  the  same  corrupt  condition  of  individual 
and  social  life.  He  charges  Judah  with  idolatry,  injustice, 
oppression,  hardened  impiety,  and  pagan  customs,2  which 

1  See  2  Kings  23. 

2  "  The  prophets,  being  public  teachers,  occupy  themselves  with  the  life  of  the 
people.     And  the  standard  which  they  apply  is  just,  as  a  rule,  the  covenant  relation, 
i.e.  the  Decalogue.     Hence  Israel's  sin  is  usually  of  two  kinds  :  either  forsaking  of 
Jehovah,  God  of  Israel,  or  social  wrong-doing  of  the  members  of  the  covenant 
people  to  one  another.     But  what  gives  its  meaning  to  all  they  say  is  their  vivid  re- 
ligious conception  of  Jehovah  as  a  person  in  immediate  relation  to  the  people." 
—  DAVIDSON,  "  Theology  of  the  Old  Testament,"  p.  213. 

246 


ZEPHANIAH,   HAGGAI,   ZECHARIAH,   AND   MALACHI      247 

he  foresees  will  end  in  judgment  and  disaster.  As  a  whole 
the  prophecy  of  Zephaniah  presents  a  picture  of  judgment 
and  desolation,  which  is  lighted  up  only  by  the  triumphant 
paean  at  its  close.  "  No  hotter  book,"  says  George  Adam 
Smith,  "  lies  in  all  the  Old  Testament.  Neither  dew  nor 
grass  nor  tree  nor  any  blossom  lives  in  it,  but  it  is  every- 
where fire,  smoke,  darkness,  drifting  chaff,  ruins,  nettles, 
saltpits,  and  owls  and  ravens  looking  down  from  the  win- 
dows of  desolate  palaces."  l 

A  Picture  of  Judgment.  —  The  prophecy  opens  abruptly 
with  dire  threatenings.  The  day  of  the  Lord,  which  is 
presented  as  an  occasion  of  inexorable  judgment,  is  pro- 
nounced near  at  hand.  The  scenes  of  desolation,  which 
the  prophet  describes,  seem  to  be  drawn  from  the  wide- 
spread destruction  wrought  by  the  Scythians,  who  about 
this  time,  as  Herodotus  tells  us,  "  became  masters  of  all 
Asia."  2  Here  is  a  part  of  the  prophet's  gloomy  picture  :  — 

"  The  great  day  of  the  Lord  is  near,  it  is  near,  and  hasteth  greatly, 
Even  the  voice  of  the  day  of  the  Lord : 
The  mighty  man  shall  cry  there  bitterly. 
That  day  is  a  day  of  wrath,  a  day  of  trouble  and  distress, 
A  day  of  wasteness  and  desolation,  a  day  of  darkness  and  gloominess, 
A  day  of  clouds  and  thick  darkness, 
A  day  of  the  trumpet  and  alarm 

Against  the  fenced  cities,  and  against  the  high  towers. 
And  I  will  bring  distress  upon  men,  that  they  shall  walk  like  blind  men, 
Because  they  have  sinned  against  the  Lord.'13 

Admonition  to  Repentance.  —  The  whole  of  chapter  2 
and  the  opening  of  chapter  3  contain  an  earnest  admoni- 
tion to  repentance  and  reformation.  The  conditional 
character  of  prophecy  is  recognized  ;  and  it  is  yet  possi- 

1  George  Adam  Smith,  "  Book  of  the  Twelve  Prophets,"  Vol.  IT.,  p.  48. 
2*Herodotus,  Bk.  I.,  ch.  104. 
8  Zeph.  i: 14-17. 


248  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

ble,    the  prophet  declares,    to  escape  the  threatened   de- 
struction by  a  humble  and  righteous  spirit :  — 

"  Seek  ye  the  Lord,  all  ye  meek  of  the  earth, 

Which  have  wrought  His  judgment ;  seek  righteousness,  seek  meek- 
ness : 
It  may  be  ye  shall  be  hid  in  the  day  of  the  Lord's  anger.11 1( 

The  destruction  of  the  Philistines,  of  Moab,  Ammon, 
Ethiopia,  and  even  Nineveh,  is  in  succession  foretold. 
Their  destruction  is  represented  as  a  vain  warning  to 
Judah:  - 

"  I  have  cut  off  the  nations  :  their  towns  are  desolate ; 
I  made  their  streets  waste,  that  nonepasseth  by: 
Their  cities  are  destroyed,  so  that  there  is  no  man, 
That  there  is  none  inhabitant. 

I  said,  Surely  thou  wilt  fear  Me,  thou  wilt  receive  instruction  ; 
So  their  dwelling  should  not  be  cut  off,  however  I  punished  them  : 
But  they  rose  early  and  corrupted  all  their  doings.112 

At  the  beginning  of  the  third  chapter  we  find  an  enu- 
meration of  the  iniquities  of  which  Jerusalem  was  guilty, 
and  from  which  the  city  was  admonished  to  turn  :  — 

"  She  trusted  not  in  the  Lord  ;  she  drew  not  near  to  her  God. 
Her  princes  within  her  are  roaring  lions  ; 
Her  judges  are  evening  wolves  ; 
They  leave  nothing  till  the  morrow. 
Her  prophets  are  light  and  treacherous  persons  : 
Her  priests  have  polluted  the  sanctuary, 
They  have  done  violence  to  the  law."  3 

Future  Glory.  —  But  the  prophet  does  not  let  his  address 
end  in  the  desolations  of  divine  judgment.  A  pious  rem- 
nant of  Judah,  who  "  shall  not  do  iniquity,  nor  speak  lies," 
is  to  be  saved.  "  They  shall  feed  and  lie  down,  and  none 
shall  make  them  afraid."  Therefore,  —  • 

1  Zeph.  2:3.  2  Zeph.  3:6,7.  8  Zeph.  3 : 2-4. 


ZEPHANIAH,  HAGGAI,   ZECHARIAH,   AND   MALACHI      249 

"  Sing,  O  daughter  of  Zion  ;  shout,  O  Israel  ; 
Be  glad  and  rejoice  with  all  the  heart,  O  daughter  of  Jerusalem. 
The  Lord  hath  taken  away  thy  judgments, 
He  hath  cast  out  thine  enemy  : 

The  King  of  Israel,  even  the  Lord,  is  in  the  midst  of  thee  : 
Thou  shalt  not  see  evil  any  more. 

In  that  day  it  shall  be  said  to  Jerusalem,  Fear  thou  not  ; 
And  to  Zion,  Let  not  thine  hands  be  slack. 
The  Lord  thy  God  in  the  midst  of  thee  is  mighty,  He  will  save, 
He  will  rejoice  over  thee  with  joy  ; 
He  will  rest  in  His  love  ;  He  will  joy  over  thee  with  singing."1 

Post-exilic  Prophecy.  —  The  three  remaining  prophets  — 
Haggai,  Zechariah,  and  Malachi  —  all  belong  to  the  post- 
exilic  period.  The  destruction  of  the  Hebrew  monarchy 
and  the  long  sojourn  of  the  Jews  in  captivity  had  profoundly 
altered  their  thought  and  life.  With  the  disappearance  of 
their  political  state,  the  Jews  thought  more  of  an  ecclesi- 
astical state.  Their  thoughts  turned  from  present  humil- 
iation to  future  glory.  The  priesthood  acquired  a  new 
prominence  in  Jewish  life,  and  the  outward  ceremonies  of 
worship  received  a  new  emphasis.2 

This  revolution  in  the  social  and  religious  life  of  the 
Jews  is  reflected,  to  a  greater  or  less  degree,  in  the  writ- 
ings of  the  post-exilic  prophets.  There  is  no  longer  the 
deep  ethical  spirit  that  belonged  to  Amos,  Hosea,  and 
Isaiah,  and  that  made  these  men  heroic  in  the  service  of 
righteousness.  In  place  of  an  irrepressible  indignation 
over  individual  and  social  wrongs,  there  is  anxious  concern 


:  14-17. 

2  "  In  the  place  of  the  monarchy  rose  the  hierarchy.  The  old  military  and 
royal  aristocracy  also  vanished,  and  instead  appeared  a  priestly  nobility,  with  the  high 
priest  at  its  head.  Israel  became  literally  '  a  kingdom  of  priests  and  a  holy 
nation.'  The  radical  change  in  the  external  organization  of  the  Jewish  race  was 
but  an  index  of  the  deeper  fact  that  its  energies  had  been  turned  into  entirely  dif- 
ferent channels.  Ritual  and  religion,  not  politics,  commanded  the  attention  of  its 
leaders."  —  KENT,  "  History  of  the  Jewish  People,"  Vol.  III.,  p.  94. 


250  AN   INTRODUCTION    TO  BIBLE  STUDY 

for  the  outward  forms  of  religion.  In  this  post-exilic 
period  was  laid  the  foundation  of  the  Pharisaic  formalism 
that  aroused  the  moral  indignation  of  Christ. 

Haggai.  — The  short  prophecy  of  Haggai  deals  with  the 
rebuilding  of  the  temple  under  Zerubbabel.  It  consists  of 
a  summary  of  four  discourses  which  the  prophet  delivered 
at  brief  intervals.  It  is  partly  in  prose  and  partly  in 
poetry ;  but  nowhere  does  it  reach  a  very  high  literary  ex- 
cellence. Still  it  is  possible  to  undervalue  it;  and,  as 
Cornill  remarks,  "  in  its  very  simplicity  and  modesty,  as 
the  utterance  of  a  heart  deeply  moved  by  a  striking  situa- 
tion, it  has  something  uncommonly  attractive,  and  even 
pathetic."  l  As  we  are  able  to  determine  from  the  definite 
statements  of  time  in  the  prophecy,  the  several  discourses 
were  delivered  between  September  and  December  in  the 
year  520  B.C. 

The  occasion  of  the  first  discourse  shows  us  the  pious 
spirit  of  the  prophet,  who  appears  to  have  been  an  old 
man.  It  was  now  sixteen  years  since  the  Jewish  exiles 
had  returned  from  Babylon ;  and  though  many  of  them 
possessed  wealth,  and  lived  in  luxurious  houses,  the  temple 
remained  unbuilt.  The  prophet  reproaches  the  people  for 
their  neglect,  and  at  the  same  time  interprets  a  failure  of 
crops  as  a  mark  of  Jehovah's  displeasure  :  — 

"  Is  it  time  for  you,  O  ye,  to  dwell  in  ceiled  houses,  • 
And  this  house  lie  waste? 

Now  therefore  thus  saith  the  Lord  of  hosts  :  Consider  your  ways. 
Ye  have  sown  much  and  bring  in  little ; 
Ye  eat,  but  ye  have  not  enough ; 
Ye  drink,  but  ye  are  not  filled  with  drink; 
Ye  clothe  you,  but  there  is  none  warm  ; 

And  he  that  earneth  wages,  earneth  wages  to  put   into  a  bag  with 
holes." 

1  Cornill,  "  Einleitur.g  in  das  Alte  Testament,"  p.  198. 


ZEPHANIAH,  HAGGAL   ZECHARIAH,   AND   MALACHI      251 

This  appeal  of  the  prophet  was  not  fruitless.  The 
governor  and  the  high  priest,  supported  by  all  the  people, 
diligently  set  about  the  work  of  completing  the  temple. 

A  Word  of  Encouragement.  —  A  few  weeks  later  the 
prophet  found  it  necessary  to  speak  a  word  of  encourage- 
ment to  the  people.  There  seems  to  have  been  a  lack  of 
materials ;  and  the  aged  few,  who  remembered  the  splen- 
dor of  the  former  temple,  were  depressed  by  the  sickening 
contrast.  But  the  prophet  assures  them  of  Jehovah's 
favor,  and  declares  that  the  munificence  of  the  nations, 
whom  God  will  move,  will  give  a  surpassing  glory  to  the 
new  structure :  — 

"Who  is  left  among  you  that  saw  this  house  in  her  first  glory? 
And  how  do  ye  see  it  now? 

Is  it  not  in  your  eyes  in  comparison  with  it  as  nothing? 
Yet  now  be  strong,  O  Zerubbabel,  saith  the  Lord ; 
And  be  strong,  O  Joshua,  son  of  Josedech,  the  high  priest ; 
And  be  strong,  all  ye  people  of  the  land,  saith  the  Lord,  and  work. 
And  I  will  shake  all  nations,  and  the  desirable  things  of  all  nations  shall 

come, 

And  I  will  fill  this  house  with  glory,  saith  the  Lord  of  hosts. 
The  silver  is  Mine,  and  the  gold  is  Mine,  saith  the  Lord  of  hosts. 
The  glory  of  the  latter  house  shall  be  greater  than  of  the  former, 
And  in  this  place  will  I  give  peace,  saith  the  Lord  of  hosts." 

Last  Discourses.  —  Some  two  months  later,  the'  prophet 
again  encourages  the  people  with  the  promise  of  God's 
blessing.  On  the  same  day  Zerubbabel  is  assured  that  in 
the  impending  catastrophe  of  the  nations,  he  wilt  be  favored 
and  exalted  of  the  Lord  :  — 

"  I  will  shake  the  heavens  and  the  earth  ; 
And  I  will  overthrow  the  throne  of  kingdoms, 
And  I  will  destroy  the  strength  of  the  kingdoms  of  the  heathen ; 
And  I  will  overthrow  the  chariots,  and  those  that  ride  in  them ; 
And  the  horses  and  their  riders  shall  come  down, 
Every  one  by  the  sword  of  his  brother. 


252  AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   BIBLE  STUDY 

In  that  day,  saith  the  Lord  of  hosts, 

Will  I  take  thee,  O  Zerubbabel,  My  servant, 

And  will  make  thee  as  a  signet ;  for  I  have  chosen  thee, 

Saith  the  Lord  of  hosts." 

Zechariah.  —  The  prophet  Zechariah  was  a  contemporary 
of  Haggai,  and  united  with  him  in  exhorting  the  governor 
and  the  high  priest  of  Jerusalem  to  proceed  with  the  re- 
building of  the  temple.  As  we  read  in  Ezra,  "  The  proph- 
ets, Haggai  the  prophet,  and  Zechariah  the  son  of  Iddo, 
prophesied  unto  the  Jews  that  were  in  Judah  and  Jerusa- 
lem." l  It  was  in  consequence  of  their  united  labors  that 
Zerubbabel  and  Jos'hua  "  began  to  build  the  house  of  God 
which  is  at  Jerusalem." 

As  we  learn  from  the  introduction,  the  first  discourse  of 
Zechariah  was  delivered  just  two  months  after  Haggai  had 
entered  upon  his  prophetical  mission.  It  was  "in  the 
eighth  month,  in  the  second  year  of  Darius"  ;  that  is,  in 
November,  5 20  B.C.  The  immediate  occasion  was  probably 
the  discouragement  which,  as  we  know  from  Haggai,  early 
beset  the  people  in  their  work.2  In  his  first  discourse  the 
prophet  warns  the  people  against  imitating  the  sins  of  their 
fathers,  and  exhorts  them  to  turn  in  loyalty  to  Jehovah  :  — 

"  Turn  ye  unto  Me,  saith  the  Lord  of  hosts, 
And  I  will  turn  unto  you,  saith  the  Lord  of  hosts." 

Twofold  Division.  —  The  prophecy  of  Zechariah  is 
clearly  divided  into  two  parts.  The  first  part,  including 
the  first  eight  chapters,  has  to  do  with  the  people  of  Judah. 
It  is  unquestionably  the  work  of  Zechariah,  and  arose  out 
of  the  circumstances  of  the  restoration. 

The  second  part,  including  the  last  six  chapters,  is  of  a 
totally  different  character.  There  are  new  superscriptions  ; 

1  Ezra  5:1.  2.  See  Hag.  2  :  1-9. 


ZEPHANIAH,  HAGGAI,   ZECHARIAH,   AND   MALACHI      253 

there  is  no  reference  to  Zerubbabel  and  Joshua ;  and  the 
whole  historic  background  is  unlike  that  of  the  restoration 
period.  For  these  reasons,  the  second  part  has  been  as- 
cribed to  another  and  unknown  author,1  who  is  supposed 
to  have  written  at  a  much  later  period. 

A  Series  of  Visions.  —  The  first  six  chapters  (chapters  i  : 
7-6:  8)  comprise  a  series  of  noteworthy  visions,  which  are 
evidently  designed  for  the  encouragement  of  the  people  at 
Jerusalem.  In  the  first  vision  the  divine  messengers,  who 
go  to  and  fro  through  the  earth,  report  a  state  of  peace 
among  the  nations.  There  are  no  signs  of  the  crisis  that 
is  to  usher  in  the  Messianic  kingdom.  Nevertheless,  Jeho- 
vah reassures  the  people  of  His  favor :  — 

"  I  am  returned  to  Jerusalem  with  mercies  : 
My  house  shall  be  built  in  it,  saith  the  Lord  of  hosts, 
And  a  line  shall  be  stretched  forth  upon  Jerusalem."  2 

In  a  second  vision  four  horns,  representing  the  world 
powers  hostile  to  Israel,  are  broken  by  four  smiths.  In 
chapter  2  there  is  a  vision  of  a  man  with  a  measuring 
rod,  who  goes  forth  to  lay  out  the  boundaries  of  the 
new  Jerusalem.  It  is  to  be  without  walls  ;  for  its  popula- 
tion will  be  unlimited,  and  its  defence  will  be  Jehovah  :  — 

"  Jerusalem  shall  be  inhabited  as  towns  without  walls 
For  the  multitude  of  men  and  cattle  therein  : 
For  I,  saith  the  Lord,  will  be  unto  her  a  wall  of  fire  round  about, 
And  will  be  the  glory  in  the  midst  of  her."3 

The  fourth  and  fifth  visions  are  intended  for  the  special 
encouragement  respectively  of  the  high  priest  Joshua  and 
the  civil  governor  Zerubbabel :  — 

1  Matthew  quotes  Zech.  u  :  12  as  the  words  of  Jeremiah.    See  Matt.  27 :  9. 

2  Zech.  i :  16.  a  zech.  2 :  4,  5. 


254  AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   BIBLE  STUDY 

"Not  by  might,  nor  by  power, 
But  by  My  Spirit,  saith  the  Lord  of  hosts. 
Who  art  thou,  O  great  mountain  ? 
Before  Zerubbabel  thou  shalt  become  a  plain  ; 
And  he  shall  bring  forth  the  head-stone  thereof 
With  shoutings,  crying,  Grace,  grace  unto  it." l 

In  the  fifth  and  sixth  chapters  there  are  three  other 
visions,  —  the  flying  roll,  the  ephah  measure,  and  the  four 
chariots.  These  are  followed  by  an  appendix,  in  which 
the  prophet  is  commanded  to  make  a  crown  for  Zerubbabel 
and  Joshua.2  The  ceremony  of  coronation  brings  forth  a 
beautiful  Messianic  promise:  — 

"  Behold  the  man  whose  name  is  the  Branch  ; 
And  he  shall  grow  up  out  of  his  place, 
And  he  shall  build  the  temple  of  the  Lord : 
Even  he  shall  build  the  temple  of  the  Lord  *, 
And  he  shall  bear  the  glory, 
And  shall  sit  and  rule  upon  his  throne ; 
And  he  shall  be  a  priest  upon  his  throne  : 
And  the  counsel  of  peace  shall  be  between  them  both.1'3 

Fasting  and  Righteousness.  —  Some  two  years  after  this 
series  of  visions,  Zechariah  delivered  another  discourse 
which  is  recorded  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  chapters.  The 
occasion  was  an  interesting  one.  A  deputation  from 
Bethel  came  to  Jerusalem  to  inquire  whether  the  custom 
of  fasting,  as  it  had  been  practised  in  captivity,  was  still  to 
be  observed.  Zechariah,  in  his  answer,  exhibits  the  spirit 

1  Zech.  4 :  6,  7. 

2  This  appears,  from  the  plural  crowns  and  from  verse  13,  to  be  the  meaning. 
If   this    emendation    be    correct,    the    following  beautiful    passage  is  addressed 
primarily  to  Zerubbabel  and  Joshua,  the  former  the  civil  and  the  latter  the  ecclesias- 
tical head  of  Jerusalem.    But  some  biblical  scholars,  like  Wellhausen,  think  that  the 
name  of  Joshua  in  the  text  has  been  substituted  for  that  of  Zerubbabel,  —  a  view 
that  does  not  seem  to  harmonize  with  what  follows. 

3  Zech.  6  :  12,  13. 


ZEPHANIAH,  HAGGAI,   ZECHARIAH,   AND   MALACHI      25$ 

of  the  older  prophets,  and  places  righteousness  far  above 
fasting :  — 

"  Execute  true  judgment, 

And  show  mercy  and  compassions  every  man  to  his  brother ; 
And  oppress  not  the  widow,  nor  the  fatherless, 
The  stranger,  nor  the  poor ; 
And  let  none  of  you  imagine  evil  against  his  brother  in  your  heart." 1 

Continuing  the  same  discourse  in  the  eighth  chapter,  the 
prophet  gives  assurances  of  the  lasting  favor  of  God  and 
of  the  future  prosperity  of  Zion.  Even  nations  from  afar 
will  come  to  worship  at  Jerusalem  :  — 

"  Thus  saith  the  Lord  of  hosts  : 

It  shall  yet  come  to  pass,  that  there  shall  come  people, 
And  the  inhabitants  of  many  cities  : 

And  the  inhabitants  of  one  city  shall  go  to  another,  saying, 
Let  us  go  speedily  to  pray  before  the  Lord, 
And  to  seek  the  Lord  of  hosts ;  and  I  will  go  also. 
Yea,  many  peoples  and  strong  nations  shall  come 
To  seek  the  Lord  of  hosts,  in  Jerusalem,  and  to  pray  before  the  Lord."  2 

Zion's  King.  —  In  passing  to  the  second  part  of  Zechariah 
we  encounter  difficulties.  The  prophet  often  veils  his 
meaning  in  symbolism.  "  The  latter  chapters,"  as  Well- 
hausen  truly  says,  "  soar  far  above  the  field  of  reality  ;  the 
historical  situation  from  which  they  start  can  hardly  be 
recognized  ;  and  the  future  hope  has  very  little  connection 
with  the  present.  The  fundamental  difference  between 
the  two  parts  of  the  book  lies  not  in  the  subject  but  in  the 
nature  of  the  prophecy,  —  in  the  first  part  realistic  and 
almost  prosaic,  in  the  second  vague  and  fantastic."3 

In  chapter  9  there  is  apparently  a  description  of 
Alexander's  conquests,  which  include  the  destruction  of 

1  Zech.  7 :  8-10.  2  Zech.  8  :  20-22. 

8  Wellhausen,  "  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,"  Zechariah. 


256  AN  INTRODUCTION   TO   BIBLE  STUDY 

Damascus,  Tyre,  and  the  cities  of  the  Philistines.  Then, 
by  the  law  of  association,  the  prophet  suddenly  passes  to 
the  victories  of  the  Messiah  :  — 

"  Rejoice  greatly,  O  daughter  of  Zion ; 
Shout,  O  daughter  of  Jerusalem; 
Behold,  thy  King  cometh  unto  thee : 
He  is  just,  and  having  salvation  ; 

Lowly,  and  riding  upon  an  ass,  and  upon  a  colt  the  foal  of  an  ass. 
And  I  will  cut  off  the  chariot  from  Ephraim, 

And  the  horse  from  Jerusalem,  and  the  battle-bow  shall  be  cut  off: 
And  he  shall  speak  peace  unto  the  heathen ; 
And  His  dominion  shall  be  from  sea  even  to  sea, 
And  from  the  river  even  to  the  ends  of  the  earth." 

The  prophecy  closes  with  a  bright  picture  of  the  day 
when  all  the  nations  shall  acknowledge  Jehovah  :  — 

"  And  it  shall  come  to  pass, 
That  every   one   that  is  left  of  all  the  nations  which  came  against 

Jerusalem 

Shall  even  go  up  from  year  to  year 
To  worship  the  King,  the  Lord  of  hosts, 
And  to  keep  the  feast  of  tabernacles."  * 

Malachi.  —  The  book  of  Malachi,  though  not  the  latest 
of  the  Old  Testament  writings,  makes  a  fitting  conclusion. 
Its  closing  words  speak  of  a  messenger  who  is  to  prepare 
the  way  for  "the  great  and  dreadful  day  of  the  Lord  "  :  — 

"  Behold  I  will  send  you  Elijah  the  prophet 
Before  the  coming  of  the  great  and  dreadful  day  of  the  Lord : 
And  he  shall  turn  the  heart  of  the  fathers  to  the  children, 
And  the  heart  of  the  children  to  their  fathers, 
Lest  I  come  and  smite  the  earth  with  a  curse." 

With  these  words  of  promise  and  hope,  the  book  of 
Malachi  forms  a  natural  transition  from  the  Old  to  the 
New  Testament. 

1  Zech.  14 :  16. 


ZEPHANIAH,  HAGGAI,   ZECHARIAH,   AND   MALACHI      257 

As  to  the  author,  nothing  is  known.  His  very  name  is 
a  matter  of  doubt;  for  the  word  Malachi,  which  means 
messenger,  may  designate  an  office  rather  than  a  person. 
It  was  so  understood  by  the  translators  of  the  Septuagint 
version.  There  is  no  reference  to  the  time  when  the 
prophecy  was  uttered  ;  yet  the  subject-matter  of  the  book 
enables  us  to  fix  approximately  its  date.  Its  mention  of  a 
governor1  shows  that  Judah  was  a  Persian  province;  the 
temple  has  been  rebuilt,  and  public  worship  is  formally 
celebrated.2  These  facts  clearly  place  Malachi  in  the 
post-exilic  period. 

But  we  are  able  to  determine  its  date  still  more  defi- 
nitely. The  prophecy  particularly  attacks  the  faithlessness 
of  the  priesthood,  the.  intermarriage  of  the  Jews  with  alien 
women,  and  remissness  in  the  payment  of  the  temple  dues. 
These  are  precisely  the  evils  that  we  meet  with  in  the 
days  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah.  It  is  evident  therefore  that 
Malachi  belongs  to  the  period  of  these  two  distinguished 
leaders ;  but  whether  he  preceded  them  or  lived  contem- 
porary with  them  is  a  disputed  question  among  biblical 
scholars.  A  probable  opinion  is  •  that  he  wrote  during 
Nehemiah's  absence  at  the  Persian  court  ;3  and  in  that  case 
his  prophecy  is  to  be  dated  about  432  B.C. 

Assurance  of  Divine  Favor.  —  The  prophecy  itself  reveals 
to  us  the  social  and  religious  condition  that  called  it  forth. 
The  brilliant  expectations  of  the  returning  exiles  had  not 
been  realized ;  a  spirit  of  worldliness  had  seized  upon  the 
ruling  classes  ;  doubt  and  unbelief  troubled  the  whole  com- 
munity. In  the  opening  words  of  his  prophecy,  Malachi 
assures  them  of  the  divine  favor  by  dwelling  on  the  con- 
trasted destinies  of  Israel  and  Edom  :  — 

1  See  Mai.  i :  8.  2  Mai.  1:7,8.  3  See  Neh.  13  :  6. 


258  AN   INTRODUCTION    TO   BIBLE  STUDY 

"  I  have  loved  you,  saith  the  Lord  : 
Yet  ye  say,  Wherein  hast  Thou  loved  us? 
Was  not  Esau  Jacob's  brother?   saith  the  Lord; 
Yet  I  loved  Jacob,  and  I  hated  Esau, 
And  laid  his  mountains  and  his  heritage  waste 
For  the  dragons  of  the  wilderness." 

This  passage  shows  us  a  peculiarity  of  Malachi's  style. 
It  contains  a  large  dialogue  element.  The  prophet  regu- 
larly states  a  proposition ;  then  he  repeats  the  objection  or 
inquiry  that  is  supposed  to  be  made  ;  and  lastly  he  expands 
or  demonstrates  his  first  proposition. 

Sins  of  the  Priests.  —  Having  established  the  fact  of 
Jehovah's  love,  which  many  of  the  people  had  come  to 
doubt,  the  prophet  proceeds  to  his  indictment  of  the 
priesthood  ;  and  because  of  their  profanation  of  the  altar 
through  unworthy  offerings,  he  threatens  them  with  divine 
judgment  :  — 

"A  son  honoreth  his  father,  and  a  servant  his  master; 
If  then  I  be  a  father,  where  is  Mine  honor? 
And  if  I  be  a  master,  where  is  My  fear? 

Saith  the  Lord  of  hosts  unto  you,  O  priests,  that  despise  My  name. 
And  ye  say,  Wherein  have  we  despised  Thy  name? 
Ye  offer  polluted  bread  upon  My  altar ; 
And  ye  say,  Wherein  have  we  polluted  Thee? 
In  that  ye  say,  The  table  of  the  Lord  is  contemptible." 1 

In  expressing  the  indignation  of  Jehovah  at  the  polluted 
service  of  the  priests,  the  prophet  for  a  moment  casts  his 
eyes  beyond  the  borders  of  Israel.  He  catches  a  glimpse 
of  that  broader  day  when  God  will  be  honored  among  all 
nations.  Nowhere  else  in  the  Old  Testament  do  we  find 
a  more  generous  contemplation  of  the  Gentile  world.  This 
fact  is  all  the  more  remarkable,  because  Malachi,  like  the 

1  Mai.  i :  6,  7. 


ZEPHANIAH,  HAGGAI,   ZECHARIAH,   AND   MALACHI      259 

other  post-exilic  prophets,  places  great  emphasis  on  Jewish 
ritual.  Listen  to  the  words  addressed  to  a  sceptical  and 
careless  priesthood :  — 

"  I  have  no  pleasure  in  you,  saith  the  Lord  of  hosts, 
Neither  will  I  accept  an  offering  at  your  hand. 
For  from  the  rising  of  the  sun,  even  unto  the  going  down  of  the 

same, 

My  name  shall  be  great  among  the  Gentiles ; 
And  in  every  place  incense  shall  be  offered  unto  My  name, 
And  a  pure  offering  : 

For  My  name  shall  be  great  among  the  heathen,  saith  the  Lord  of 
hosts."  i 

Alien  Wives.  —  The  prophecy  of  Malachi  is  closely 
wrought  together.  After  reproving  the  unworthy  priests, 
the  prophet  arraigns  the  people  for  divorcing  their  Jewish 
wives,  and  marrying  heathen  women.  This  was  a  violation 
of  the  solemn  covenant  previously  made  under  the  influence 
of  Ezra,2  and  accordingly  invited  the  utmost  severity  of 
Jehovah's  punishment :  — 

"  Judah  has  dealt  treacherously, 

And  an  abomination  is  committed  in  Israel  and  in  Jerusalem  ; 
For  Judah  hath  profaned  the  holiness  of  the  Lord,  which  He  loved, 
And  hath  married  the  daughter  of  a  strange  god. 
The  Lord  will  cut  off  the  man  that  doeth  this, 
The  master  and  the  scholar,  out  of  the  tabernacles  of  Jacob, 
And  him  that  offereth  an  offering  unto  the  Lord  of  hosts."  8 

In  this  connection  the  prophet  gives  a  pathetic  picture  of 
the  wronged  women  of  Judah.  They  cover  the  altar  with 
tears ;  and  in  sympathy  with  their  suffering,  the  Lord 
turns  away  from  the  priestly  offerings  :  — 

"  And  this  have  ye  done  again, 
Covering  the  altar  of  the  Lord  with  tears, 

1  Mai.  i :  10,  ii.  2  See  Ezra  10.  8  Mai.  2:  n,  12. 


260  AN   INTRODUCTION    TO   BIBLE  STUDY 

With  weeping  and  with  crying  out, 

Insomuch  that  He  regardeth  not  the  offering  any  more, 

Or  receiveth  it  with  good  will  at  your  hand." 

A  Day  of  Judgment.  —  The  prophet  turns  next  to  the 
coming  day  of  the  Lord.  In  their  moral  decadence  the 
people  lost  their  consciousness  of  a  distinction  between 
good  and  evil.  Though  the  older  prophets  had  repeatedly 
spoken  of  a  day  of  judgment,  the  sensual  and  worldly 
minded  contemporaries  of  Malachi  were  outspoken  in  their 
scepticism  about  its  coming  :  — 

"  Ye  have  wearied  the  Lord  with  your  words : 
Yet  ye  say,  Wherein  have  we  wearied  Him? 
When  ye  say,  Every  one  that  doeth  evil 
Is  good  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord,  and  He  delighteth  in  them ; 
Or,  Where  is  the  God  of  Judgment?"  l 

In  reply  to  this  moral  confusion  and  open  scepticism,  the 
prophet  declares  that  the  Lord  will  suddenly  come  in 
judgment.  But  the  day  of  the  Lord  is  not  to  be  a  great 
day  of  battle ;  it  is  to  be  a  day  of  purifying,  in  which  the 
righteous  will  be  winnowed  from  the  wicked  :  — 

"  And  I  will  come  near  to  you  in  judgment ; 
And  I  will  be  a  swift  witness  against  the  sorcerers, 
And  against  the  adulterers,  and  against  false  swearers, 
And  against  those  that  oppress  the  hireling  in  his  wages, 
The  widow,  and  the  fatherless, 
And  that  turneth  aside  the  stranger  from  his  right, 
And  fear  not  Me,  saith  the  Lord  of  hosts."2 

In  all  this  there  is  a  momentary  return  of  the  fine  ethi- 
cal sense  of  the  older  prophets  who  exalt  righteousness 
above  ritual. 

Promise  of  Blessing.  —  The  prophet  next  charges  the 
people  with  robbing  God  by  withholding  their  tithes  and 

1  Mai.  2  :  17.  2  Mai.  3  :  5. 


ZEPHANIAH,   HAGGAI,   ZECHARIAH,   AND   MALACHI      261 

offerings.  For  this  reason  the  land  had  been  visited  by 
drought  and  locust.  The  prophet  exhorts  the  people  to 
reformation,  and  promises  them  illimitable  blessings  :  — 

"  Ye  are  cursed  with  a  curse ; 
For  ye  have  robbed  Me,  even  this  whole  nation. 
Bring  ye  all  the  tithes  into  the  storehouse. 
That  there  may  be  meat  in  Mine  house, 
And  prove  Me  now  herewith,  saith  the  Lord  of  hosts, 
If  I  will  not  open  the  windows  of  heaven, 
And  pour  you  out  a  blessing, 
That  there  shall  not  be  room  enough  to  receive  it."  1 

Triumph  of  the  Righteous.  —  Once  more,  before  he  ends 
his  work,  the  prophet  silences  the  voice  of  unbelief.  The 
people  complained  that  "it  is  vain  to  serve  God."  They 
asserted  that  the  proud  were  happy  and  the  wicked  pros- 
perous. In  reply  to  this  ever  recurring  complaint  of  un- 
belief, the  prophet  declares  that  in  due  time  God  will 
recognize  His  own,  and  that  in  the  fires  of  that  day  "  all  the 
proud,  yea,  and  all  that  do  wickedly,  shall  be  stubble"  :  — 

"  And  a  book  of  remembrance  was  written  before  Him, 
For  them  that  feared  the  Lord,  and  that  thought  upon  His  name. 
And  they  shall  be  Mine,  saith  the  Lord  of  hosts, 
In  that  day  when  I  make  up  My  jewels.1'  2 

Conclusion.  —  We  close  our  studies  in  the  Old  Testament 
with  the  beautiful  words  of  Kuenen :  "  As  we  watch  the 
weaving  of  the  web  of  Hebrew  life,  we  endeavor  to  trace 
through  it  the  more  conspicuous  threads.  Long  time  the 
eye  follows  the  crimson;  it  disappears  at  length;  but  the 
golden  thread  of  sacred  prophecy  continues  to  the  end. 
The  prophets  teach  us  to  live  and  to  struggle ;  to  believe 
with  immovable  firmness ;  to  hope  even  when  all  is  dark 

1  Mai.  3 : 9,  10.  2  Mai.  3 : 16,  17. 


262  AN   INTRODUCTION   TO   BIBLE  STUDY 

around  us  ;    to  trust  the  voice  of  God  in  our  inmost  con- 
sciousness; and  to  speak  with  boldness  and  with  power."  1 


RESEARCH   WORK 

ZEPHANIAH 

A  severe  judgment  of  God,  Zeph.  i  :  1-18. 

An  exhortation  to  repentance,  Zeph.  2  :  1-15  ;  3  :  1-7. 

Future  glory  of  Israel,  Zeph.  3  :  8-20. 

HAGGAI    . 

A  prophetic  appeal  and  its  result,  Hag.  I  :  2-15. 
A  word  of  encouragement,  Hag.  2  :  1-9. 
Unacceptable  offerings,  Hag.  2  :  10-19. 
A  civil  governor  encouraged,  Hag.  2  :  20-23. 

ZECHARIAH 

An  exhortation  to  repentance,  Zech.  i  :  1-6. 

A  series  of  visions,  Zech.  i  :  6-6. 

A  vision  of  red  horses,  Zech.  i  :  8-17. 

An  angel  with  a  measuring  line,  Zech.  2. 

The  crowns  of  Joshua  (and  Zerubbabel),  Zech.  6:  9-15. 

Righteousness  better  than  fasting,  Zech.  7. 

A  picture  of  future  glory  for  Zion,  Zech.  8. 

A  Grecian  and  a  Messianic  conquest,  Zech.  9. 

Prayer  and  promise,  Zech.  10  :  1-12. 

The  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  Zech.  n. 

Jerusalem  an  instrument  of  judgment,  Zech.  12. 

Final  struggle  with  hostile  world  powers,  Zech.  14. 

MALACHI 

The  love  of  Jehovah,  Mai.  i  :  2-5. 

Sins  of  the  priests,  Mai.  i  :  6-2  :  9. 

Marriage  with  alien  women  denounced,  Mai.  2  : 10-16. 

Approach  of  a  day  of  judgment,  Mai.  2  :  17-3  :  6. 

Tithe-paying  and  outward  prosperity,  Mai.  3:  7-12. 

God  makes  up  His  jewels,  Mai.  3  :  13-4:  6. 

1  Quoted  in  Farrar's  "  The  Bible :  its  Meaning  and  Supremacy,"  p.  273. 


INDEX 


(Numbers  refer  to  pages.) 


Abbott,  Lyman,  quoted,  131,  150  (foot- 
note). 

Amos,  223-228;   research  work,  230. 

Architecture,  and  the  Bible,  17;  in 
Hebrew  history,  35. 

Assyrian  monarchy,  29-32;  biblical 
references,  71-72. 

Authorship,  Daniel,  203;  Ecclesiastes, 
159;  Proverbs,  154. 

Babylon,  33-38;   biblical  references,  72. 

Babylonian  exile,  65. 

Barney,  C.  B.,  quoted,   124  (footnote). 

Behistun  inscription,  25. 

Belshazzar,  34 ;  his  feast,  208. 

Bethlehem,  238. 

Bible,  The,  1-22. 

"Book  of  the  Dead,"  48. 

Brown,  Francis,  quoted,  127  (footnote). 

Browning,  Robert,  quoted,  15. 

Bryon,  quoted,  13. 

Canaan,  land  of,  52;  conquest  of,  56; 
research  work,  70. 

Carlyle,  Thomas,  value  of  Bible,  2  ;  on 
Job,  136. 

Chaldea,  27. 

Cheyne,  T.  K.,  quoted,  136;  159  (foot- 
note). 

Christianity,  source  of,  3. 

Chronicles,  I.  and  II.,  126-128;  re- 
search work,  133. 

Church,  organizations  of,  4. 

Civilization,  modern,  i. 

Coleridge,  quoted,  14. 

Cortiill,  C.  H.,  quoted,  87;  163;  223; 
236  (footnotes). 

Creation,  traditions  of,  at  Babylon,  38. 


Daniel,  202-211;  research  work,  213. 
Dante's  "Divina  Commedia,"  12. 
David,  59. 

Davidson,  A.  B.,  quoted,  246  (footnote). 
Deluge,  Babylonian  account  of,  38. 
Democracy,  modern,  and  the  Bible,  5. 
Deuteronomy,  103-105;    research  work, 

108. 

Driver,  S.  R.,  quoted,  233  (footnote). 
Duncker,  Max,  quoted,  63  (footnote). 

Ecclesiastes,  158-163 ;  research  work,  169 
Economics,  and  the  Bible,  10. 
Education,  relation  to  the  Bible,  5. 
Egypt,  39-49- 

Esther,  130-132  ;   research  work,  134. 
Ethical  ideals,  and  the  Bible,  19. 
Exodus,  95-99 ;    research  work,  107. 
Explorers  and  excavators,  24. 
Ezekiel,  193-201 ;  research  work,  212. 
Ezra,  129;   research  work,  134. 

Flood,  traditions  of,  at  Babylon,  38. 

Geikie,  C.,  quoted,  181  (footnote). 
Genesis,  94-95 ;  research  work,  106. 
Goethe's  "Faust,"  12. 
Graetz,  H.,  quoted,  no  (footnote). 
Gray,  George  B.,  quoted,  103  (footnote). 
Green,  W.  H.,  quoted,  74  (footnote). 

Habakkuk,  242-245 ;  research  work,  245. 
Haggai,  250-251 ;  research  work,  262. 
Hammurabi,  28. 
Hebrew  history,  background  of,  24-47 ;. 

research  work,  69. 
Hebrew     literature,     74-90;      research 

work,  90-91, 


263 


264 


INDEX 


Hebrew     monarchy,     58-64;      research 

work,  70,  71. 

Hosea,  216-218;   research  work,  230. 
Hosmer,  J.  K.,  quoted,  52  (footnote). 

Isaiah,  171-186;    research  work,  191. 
Israel,   conquest  of,    31;    relation  with 

Hebrew  history,  46;   people  of,  51-68; 

research   work,    68-72;    Jonah,    type 

of,  233. 

Jeremiah,  180-187;    research  work,  191. 
Job,  136-143;   research  work,  151. 
Joel,  219-222;  research  work,  230. 
Jonah,  231-234;    research  work,  245. 
Josephus,  quoted,  43,  78. 
Joshua,  110-112;    research  work,  120. 
Judah,  64. 

Judges,  period  of,  57;  book  of,  113-115; 
research  work,  121. 

Kent,  Charles  F.,  quoted,  249  (footnote) . 
Kings,  I.,  II.,   123-124;    research  work, 

132. 
Kuenen,  A.,  quoted,  105  (footnote). 

Lamentations,  188-189;  research  work, 
192, 

Leviticus,  99-101 ;    research  work,    107. 

Literature,  and  the  Bible,  n  ;  in  Egypt, 
47 ;  nature  of,  73 ;  influence  of  en- 
vironment, 74;  influence  of  race  and 
epoch,  75 ;  classification,  78 ;  wisdom, 
i53- 

McFadyen,  John  E.,  quoted,  95 ;    100 ; 

105;   167  (footnotes) ;   242  (text). 
Malachi,  256-261 ;    research  work,  262. 
Manufactures,  at  Babylon,  37. 
Marriage,  and  the  Bible,  8. 
Memphis,  Old,  42. 
Mesopotamia,  26-39. 
Micah,  235-238;  research  work,  245. 
Milman,  H.  H.,  quoted,  98  (footnote). 
Milton,  quoted,  12. 
Moore,  Thomas,  quoted,  13. 
Moulton,  R.  S.,  quoted,  55   (footnote). 

b 

Nabonidus,  34. 

Nahum,  239—241 ;  research  work,  245. 

Nehemiah,  130;  research  work,  134. 


Nicol,  Thomas,  quoted,  28  (footnote). 
Nile,  40;  influence  upon  Egypt,  41. 
Numbers,  102  ;  research  work,  108. 

Obadiah,  228-229;    research  work,  230. 
Old    Testament    as    literature,    73-90; 

research  work,  90-91. 
Orr,  James,  quoted,  67  (footnote). 

Painting,  and  the  Bible,  17. 
Parallelism,  in  Hebrew  Poetry,  83-85. 
Pentateuch,     92-106;      research     work, 

106-108. 

Philanthropy,  and  the  Bible,  20. 
Poetry,  Hebrew,  83  ;   lyrical,  in  Bible,  12. 
Poets  of  truth  and  righteousness,  13. 
Post-exilic  prophecy,  249. 
Preachers  of  righteousness,  86-89. 
Prisse  papyrus,  the  oldest  book,  47. 
Prophets,  studies  in  the  major,  170-212; 

studies   in   the   minor,    214-262;     re- 

search work,   191;    212;    230;    245; 

262. 

Proverbs,  153-158;   research  work,  169. 
Psalms,  The,   143-149;    research  work, 


Ramses  II.,  45. 

Religion,  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria,  37  ; 
in  Egypt,  48. 

Religious  conditions,  217. 

Research  work,  Amos,  230;  Babylon, 
72  ;  the  Bible,  its  relation  to  modern 
life,  22;  Chronicles,  133;  conquest 
of  Canaan,  70;  Daniel,  213;  Deuter- 
onomy, 108;  Ecclesiastes,  169;  Esther, 
134;  Exodus,  107;  Ezekiel,  212; 
Ezra,  134;  Genesis,  106;  Habakkuk, 
245  ;  Haggai,  262  ;  Hebrew  history, 
69;  Hebrew  monarchy,  70;  71; 
Hosea,  230;  Isaiah,  191;  Israel, 
conquest  of,  68-72  ;  Jeremiah,  191  ; 
Job,  151;  Joel,  230;  Jonah,  245; 
Joshua,  120;  Judges,  121  ;  Kings,  132; 
Lamentations,  192;  Leviticus,  107; 
Malachi,  262;  Micah,  245;  Nahum, 
245  ;  Nehemiah,  134  ;  Numbers,  108  ; 
Obadiah,  230;  Old  Testament  as 
literature,  90;  91;  Pentateuch,  106- 
108;  Prophets,  191;  212;  230;  245; 
262;  Proverbs,  169;  Psalms,  151; 


INDEX 


265 


Ruth,   121 ;  Samuel  I.   and   II.,  121; 

Song  of  Solomon,  169;  Zechariah,  262; 

Zephaniah,  262. 
Rosetta  stone,  26. 
Ruskin,  quoted,  2. 

Ruth,  book  of,  116;   research  work,  121. 
Ryle,  H.  E.,  quoted,  38;  39  (footnotes). 

Samuel,  I.  and  II.,  117—119;  research 
work,  121. 

Saul,  59. 

Sayce,  A.  H.,  quoted,  24 ;  81 ;  94 ;  97 ; 
116  (footnotes). 

Science,  at  Babylon,  35. 

Sculpture,  at  Babylon,  36. 

Sennacherib,  31. 

Slavery,  and  the  Bible,  9. 

Smith,  George  Adam,  quoted,  54  (foot- 
note). 


Smith,  H.  P.,  quoted,  115  (footnote). 
Smith,  W.  R.,  quoted,  57  (footnote). 
Solomon,  61. 

Song    of    Solomon,    163-168;     research 
work,  169. 

Tennyson,  quoted,  16;  21. 
Theban  Empire,  the  new,  44. 
Tiglathpilezer,  30. 

Wellhausen,  quoted,  255. 
Whittier,  quoted,  15. 
Wisdom  literature,  153. 
Woman,  position  of,  7. 
Wordsworth,  quoted,  14. 
World,  fundamental  view  of,  3. 

Zechariah,  252-255 ;  research  work,  262. 
Zephaniah,  246-248;  research  work,  262. 


14  DAY  USE 

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